AP Psychology AP Exam Review

absolute threshold

weakest amount of 1 stimulus that can be detected at least ½ of the time

accommodation of the lens

Process by which visual stimuli are focused onto the retina by the lens. When this process is altered, nearsightedness or farsightedness can result

action potential

an electrical impulse that travels along the axon, enabling the neuron to transmit signals

activation-synthesis theory

The pons sends randomness signals to the upper part of the brain during REM sleep. These random signals pass through the thalamus, which sends the signals to the proper sensory areas of the cortex. The association areas respond to the random activation of these critical cells by making up a story or dream using bits and pieces of life experiences and memories (Pons → Thalamus → Cortex)

adaptations

the ability to adjust to new information and experiences

addiction

an intense desire to use a drug, particularly for relieving mental stress and negative emotions

afterimages

visual illusions that occur when we continue to see an image even after it has been removed from our field of vision

agonists

a drug or other chemical that binds to a particular receptor and produces a physiological effect, typically one similar to that of the body’s own neurotransmitter at that receptor

antagonists

a drug or chemical agent that inhibits the action of another substance. May reduce the effects of the substance by binding to the same receptor without stimulating it, which decreases the number of available receptors.

all-or-nothing principle

the neuron either fires completely or not at all

amygdala

a structure in the temporal lobe that is a component of the limbic system. Plays a role in memory, emotion, perception of threat, and fear learning

association areas

found in all lobes but particularly in the frontal lobes, believed to play general rather than specific roles

autonomic nervous system

divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Automatically, involuntarily regulates heartbeat, breathing, digestion, swallowing, and sexual arousal.

axon

long, thin fiber that transmits info away from the soma to other neurons, muscles, or glands

blind spot

there are no rods or cones here because it is where the visual nerve exits the eye. But the brain fills in the gaps in incomplete images.

blindsight

a phenomenon where people with damage to their primary visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them

electroencephalography (EEG)

a method of studying brain waves using an instrument that amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed at various points on the scalp.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

a noninvasive diagnostic technique that uses the response of hydrogen in tissue molecules to strong magnetic impulses to form a three-dimensional picture of body organs and tissues

functional magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

a form of magnetic Resonance Imaging used to localize areas of cognitive activation, based on the correlation between brain activity and blood property changes linked to local changes in blood flow to the brain.

Brain Lateralization

each brain hemisphere has specialized function

brainstem

part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. Includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and is involved in the automatic control of breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.

Brocas Area

part of the brain that is responsible for the production of spoken language, located in the frontal lobe, usually the left side of the brain.

Brocas Aphasia

struggle with speech production, yet can understand speech. speech often grammatically incorrect, words come slowly, some words may be left out entirely.

central nervous system

the entire complex of neurons, axons, and supporting tissue that include the brain and spinal cord. Primarily involved in mental activities and in coordinating and integrating incoming sensory messages and outgoing motor messages.

cerebellum

generally controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning

cerebral cortex

the outermost layer of the brain. divided into two hemispheres and contain the four lobes.

cerebrum

the largest part of the brain, forming most of the forebrain and lying in front of and above the cerebellum. Consists of two cerebral hemispheres bridged by the corpus callosum.

circadian rhythm

a cycle about 24 hours long also known as the sleep/wake cycle

confederate

an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment

consciousness

an organism’s awareness of something either internal or external to itself

contralaterality

in all vertebrates, the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body

corpus callosum

a large tract of nerve fibers running across the longitudinal fissure of the brain and connecting the cerebral hemispheres. It is the principal connection between the two sides of the brain.

debriefing - researchers must debrief all participants

psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information after the experiment about the purpose, results, and conclusions of the research, and inform participants of any deception, including the use of confederates

deception

any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others

deep sleep

the stage of the sleep cycle in which arousal thresholds are highest and consciousness is taken to be least likely. Commonly defined by a predominance of slow, high-amplitude waveforms (Delta waves)

dendrites

neuron fiber that detects signals from the axons of other neurons and carries those signals to the cell body

depolarization

upon reaching the threshold, sodium channels open, allowing sodium ions to flood into the neuron, causing a rapid change in electrical charge. Propagates along the axon as the action potential, carrying the neutral signals forward.

dichromatism

only 2 of the 3 cone types are present in the eye’s retina

monochromatism

only 1 of the 3 cone types is present in the eye’s retina, resulting in no color vision at all

Insomnia

difficulty falling asleep and/or staying asleep

narcolepsy

excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into sleep throughout the day

REM sleep behavior disorder

disorder in which people physically act of vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep

Sleep Apnea

a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep, waking up each time long enough to resume breathing

Somnambulism

(sleepwalking) walking or performing other actions like operating machinery during NREM sleep

effects of sleep deprivation

risk of diabetes, heart disease, stroke, depression, obesity, dementia, and psychosis

endocrine system

cells that form organs called glands and that communicate with each other by secreting hormones

evolutionary perspective

an approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges.

excitatory neurotransmitters

increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire a signal called an action potential

inhibitory neurotransmitters

decrease the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire a signal called an action potential

fight-or-flight

a pattern of psychological changes elicited by activity of the sympathetic nervous system in response to threatening or otherwise stressful situations that leads to mobilization of energy for physical activity.

forebrain

highly specialized functions, emotion, complex though, cerebrum, cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system

fovea

a small depression in the central portion of the retina in which retinal cone cells are most concentrated and an image is focused most clearly

ganglion cells

The only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation. Form the optic nerve.

Gate control theory of pain

there are “gates” in the spinal cord that can either open or close to allow pain signals to reach the brain. When the gates are open, pain signals are transmitted, resulting in the sensation of pain. When gates are closed, these signals are blocked, reducing the perception of pain.

Generalizability

the extent to which results or findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population

glands

organs that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

glial cells

cells that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport

gustation

the chemical sense of taste, and types of tastes include sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and olegustus

hallucinogens

a substance capable of producing a sensory effect in the absence of an actual stimulus. also called psychedelic drugs or psychedelics.

heredity

the transmission of traits from parents to their offspring

heritability

an estimate of the contribution of inheritance to a given trait or function in a population

hindbrain

autonomic functions necessary to stay alive like breathing, heartbeat, and digestion, containing the pons, reticular formation, medulla, and cerebellum

hippocampus

part of the forebrain, important for declarative memory and learning.

homeostasis

the regulation by an organism of all aspects of its internal environment, including body temperature, salt-water balance, etc.

adrenaline

secreted by the adrenal gland, especially in conditions of stress or danger, increasing rates of blood circulation, breathing, and prepares muscles for exertion. Prepares the body for a fight-or-flight response

Leptin

regulates hunger by providing the sensation of satiety. Sleep deprivation leads to lower levels of this hormone.

Ghrelin

regulates hunger. High levels of this hormone increases the urge to eat. Sleep deprivation leads to higher levels of this hormone.

Melatonin

plays a role in sleep. secreted in response to darkness, helps with the timing of the circadian rhythm

Oxytocin

known as the “cuddle hormone,” it is secreted when people are physically affectionate such a as hugging someone. important in childbirth and lactation

hyperpolarization

an increase in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes more negative in relation to the outer surface.

hypothalamus

helps produce hormones that regulate heart rate, body temperature, hunger, and the sleep-wake cycle (4F’s fight-or flight, feeding, sex)

interneurons

any neuron that is neither sensory nor motor but connects other neurons within the central nervous system

just-noticeable difference

smallest difference between 2 stimuli that can be detected at least ½ of the time

K complex

a waveform seen on electroencephalography during the second stage of NREM sleep

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

left hemisphere of the brain

verbal processing: oral (and sign) language, speech, reading, writing

right hemisphere of the brain

nonverbal processing: spatial, musical, visual recognition

leisoning

intentionally damaging or removing specific areas of the brain to treat certain disorders

limbic system

a group of brain structures that regulate basic emotions such as fear and rage and drives such as hunger and sex

frontal lobe

linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning, especially in the prefrontal cortex.

long-term potentiation

the strengthening of synaptic connections so that postsynaptic neurons are more easily activated. The basis for learning and memory

medulla

controls automatic (involuntary) functions of the body, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

melatonin

hormone that plays a role in sleep. secreted in response to darkness, helps with the timing of the circadian rhythms.

midbrain

supports multiple functions including vision, hearing, motor control, sleeping and waking, alertness, and temperature regulation

motor neurons

the nerves responsible for carrying signals away from the central nervous system in order to initiate an action such as muscle contraction and gland secretion.

motor cortex

located at the rear of the frontal lobes and controls most types of skeletal movements

Multiple Sclerosis

a disease of the central nervous system characterized by inflammation and multifocal scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission.

myelin sheath

white, fatty substance surrounding the axon. It increases the speed of action potentials as they travel along the axon.

natural selection

the process by which such forces as competition, disease, and climate tend to eliminate individuals who are less well adapted to a particular environment and favor the survival and reproduction of better adapted individuals, thereby changing the nature of the population over successive generations.

nature v nurture

the dispute over the relative contributions of hereditary and constitutional factors and environmental factors to the development of an individual.

nearsightedness

a vision condition where people have difficulty seeing objects that are far away

farsightedness

a vision condition where people have difficulty seeing objects that are up close

nerve

a bundle of axons outside the central nervous system, enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue to form a cord-like structure

Nervous System

system of neurons, nerves, tracts, and associated tissues that, together with the endocrine system, coordinates activities of the organism in response to signals received from the internal and external environments.

neural impulse

a wave of depolarization, in the form of an action potential, that is propagated along a neuron or chain of neurons as the means of transmitting signals in the nervous system.

neuron

neural cells that transmit information

neuroplasticity

the ability of the brain to rewire itself or modify or create new connections throughout development and generally allows for the function of a damaged part of the brain to be assumed by a different part of the brain.

neuroscience

the study of the nervous system, especially the brain

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers in the brain

acetylcholine (ACh)

involved with muscle contraction and memory. A deficit can lead to alzheimer’s disease