EXAM 1 BIOLOGY

What is the scientific method?

ITS A METHOD OF RESEARCH WITH DEFINED STEPS

List the steps of the scientific methods in order.

OBSERVATION, QUESTION, HYPOTHESIS, PREDICTION, EXPERIMENT, RESULT.

What is a null vs alternative hypothesis?

NULL IS THAT THERE IS NO DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUPS, ALTERNATIVE IS THAT THERE IS A HUGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUPS OR VARIABLES

Be able to identify the nine properties of life discussed in lecture

ORDER, SENSITIVITY, REPRODUCTION, ADAPTATION, GROWTH, AND DEVELOPMENT.

Define the following terms:  biology, matter, element, atom, molecule, compound, ion, cation, anion, electron transfer, reactant, product.

BIOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF LIVING ORGANISMS. MATTER IS ANY SUBSTANCE THAT OCCUPIES SPACE AND HAS MASS. ELEMENTS ARE UNIQUE FORMS OF MATTER WITH SPECIFIC CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. ATOM IS THE SMALLEST UNIT OF MATTER THAT RETAINS ALL THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AN ELEMENT. MOLECULE IS WHEN TWO OR MORE ATOMS CHEMICALLY BOND. COMPOUND IS WHEN ATOMS OF MORE THAN ONE TYPE OF ELEMENT CHEMICALLY TO THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE. ION IS WHEN ATOMS GAIN OR LOSE ELECTRONS. CATION ARE POSITIVE IONS FORMING FROM LOSING ELECTRONS. ANIONS ARE NEGATIVE FROM GAINING ELECTRONS.ELECTRON TRANSFER IS THE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS FROM ONE ELEMENT TO ANOTHER. REACTANT IS A SUBSTANCE THAT TAKES PART IN AND UNDERGOES CHANGE DURING REACTION. PRODUCT ????

Be able to name several properties that are common to all life.

Name the four elements common to all living organisms.

CARBON OXYGEN HYDROGEN NITROGEN 

The structure of an atom

THE INNERMOST SECOND THIRD AND FOURTH

Distinguishing characteristics of protons, neutrons, and electrons and where each is located.

INNERMOST CAN HOLD 2 ELECTRONS, SECOND CAN HOLD ADDITION 8, THIRD CAN HOLD AN ADDITIONAL 18, FOURTH  CAN HOLD AND ADDITIONAL 32

Who developed the atomic theory and in what year?

NEILS BOHR (1885-1962)  

The differences between ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds, including how they are formed and their relative strengths.

IONIC BONDS ARE FORMED BETWEEN IONS WITH OPPOSITE CHARGES. COVALENT BONDS CAN FORM BY SHARING ONE, TWO OR THREE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS. STRENGTHS ??

The difference between single, double, and triple covalent bonds.

A SINGLE BOND HAS TWO ELECTRONS, A DOUBLE BOND HAS FOUR ELECTRONS, AND TRIPLE BOND HAS SIX ELECTRONS.

The difference between polar and non-polar covalent bonds.

POLAR COVALENT BONDS THE ELECTRONS ARE UNEQUALLY SHARED BY THE DIFFERENT ATOMS, NON POLAR COVALENT SHARE THE TWO ATOMS FORMING THE COVALENT BONDS SHARE THE THE ELECTRONS EQUALLY.

Discuss life-sustaining properties of water such as cohesion, adhesion, and as potent solvent.

COHESION IS FORMING A WHOLE, ADHESION CONNECTING TO THE SURFACE POTENT SOLVENT HELPS TRANSPORT AND USE SUBSTANCES

What is a “hydration shell?

IT IS A BOND OF WATER THAT IS SURROUNDING THE PARTICLES WITH WATER PARTICLES 

Discuss the atomic structure of carbon that makes it an ideal structural backbone of life.  

CARBON IS IN LIQUID SOLIDS AND GASSES. EVERYTHING THAT IS LIVING NEEDS ONE OF THESE THINGS SO IF WE DIDN'T HAVE CARBON WE WOULD DIE

Define the following terms:  macromolecule, functional group, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, amphipathic, monomer, polymer, denaturation.

MACROMOLECULE IS A SET OF ORGANIC MOLECULES THAT ARE SPECIFICALLY IMPORTANT FOR LIFE. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS GIVE MACROMOLECULES THEIR SPECIFIC CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. HYDROPHOBIC IS WATER HATING, HYDROPHILIC IS WATER LOVING. AMPHIPATHIC IT IS PART WATER HATING AND PART WATER LOVING. MONOMERS COMBINE WITH EACH OTHER USING COVALENT BONDS TO FORM POLYMERS. POLYMERS ARE GROUPS OF VERY BIG MOLECULES GROUPED TOGETHER. DENATURATION IS THE LOSS OF PROTEIN FUNCTION

Name the four types of macromolecules.

CARBOHYDRATE, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, AMINO ACIDS

Understand how functional groups are classified as hydrophobic or hydrophilic.

THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS HYDROPHOBIC AND HYDROPHILIC BECAUSE THE FUNCTIONAL GROUP CAN PARTICIPATE IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS, IT’S DEPENDING ON THEIR CHARGE OR (POLARITY) 

What is the basic chemical formula for a carbohydrate?

CH20

What are the 3 subtypes of carbohydrates?

MONOSACCHARIDES, DISACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES 

Classify a monosaccharide based on the number of carbons.

IT USUALLY HAS 3-7 CARBONS, 3C TRIOSE, 4C TETROSE 5C PENTOSE, 6C HEXOSE, 7 HEPTOSE

Classify a monosaccharide based on the position of the carbonyl group.

IF THE C=O IS AT THE END OF THE CARBON CHAIN =ALDOSE 

IF THE C=O IS SECOND FROM THE END OF THE CHAIN =KETOSE 

For each of the examples of monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, and fructose) know where they occur in nature, and if they are an aldose or ketose.  

GLUCOSE IS FOUND IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS ALDOSE GALACTOSE IS FOUND IN MILK ALDOSE FRUCTOSE SUGARS FOUND IN FRUIT HONEY “ROOT VEGETABLES” KETOSE 

What type of bond is formed between monomers in a disaccharide?

COVALENT BOND 

For each of the examples of disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, and maltose) know where they occur in nature, and of which two monomers they are composed.  

SUCROSE IS TABLE SUGAR, LACTOSE IS MILK SUGAR, MALTOSE MALT/GRAIN SUGAR. MONOMERS ARE SUCROSE MALTOSE 

For each of the examples of polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin) know where they occur in nature.

STARCH IS IN PLANTS, GLYCOGEN HUMANS AND OTHER HUMANS, CELLULOSE IS IN PLANTS BUT CAN BE FOUND IN COWS BUFFALOES AND HORSES BECAUSE OF THEIR STRONG STOMACHS.. CHITIN EXOSKELETONS AND ARTHROPODS(INSECTS CRUSTACEANS) 

What is the distinguishing characteristic of a lipid?

THEY ARE NON POLAR

List some of the functions lipids provide.

THEY PROVIDE INSULATION FROM THE ENVIRONMENT IN FOR PLANTS AND ANIMALS. THEY ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS FOR HORMONES. 

Name the four main types of lipids.

FATS AND OILS, WAXES PHOSPHOLIPIDS, STEROIDS

Fats consist of what two basic molecules?  

GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACIDS

What type of bond is formed between a glycerol and a fatty acid?

ESTER BOND 

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fat? 

SATURATED FATS ARE A SINGLE BONDS BETWEEN C MOLECULES, UNSATURATED ARE HYDROCARBON CHAIN THAT CONTAINS DOUBLE BONDS.

Which is harmful to our health and which is beneficial?

SATURATED FATS ARE HARMFUL THEY CONTRIBUTE TO PLAQUE AND UNSATURATED FATS HELP TO LOWER BLOOD CHOLESTEROL LEVELS. 

What does it mean if a fat is monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated?

MONOUNSATURATED HAS ONE DOUBLE BOND, AND POLYUNSATURATED HAS ONE MORE THAN ONE CARBON BOND

Why do some plants utilize waxes?

IT HELPS THEM TO PRESERVE WATER  

Where are phospholipids found? 

PLASMA MEMBRANE 

What parts of the phospholipid are hydrophobic and what is hydrophilic?

THE FATS ARE HYDROPHOBIC AND THE MODIFIED GROUP IS HYDROPHILIC

In a cell membrane, how are the phospholipids arranged?

THE LIPID BILAYER 

In what way are steroids structurally different from other lipids?

THEY HAVE A FUSED STRUCTURE RING

What is the most common steroid in the human body and why is it important?

VITAMIN D, THEY MAKE VITAMIN D HORMONES DIGESTIVE SALTS 

List several functions of proteins.

MAINTAINING PROPER FLUID AND ACID BASE BALANCE, NUTRIENT TRANSPORT MAKING ANTIBODIES AND ENABLING WOUND HEALING.

What is the basic monomer that make up proteins?

AMINO ACIDS 

How many different amino acids are there?  How are they different?

THERE ARE 20 THEY ARE DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF AMINO ACIDS GIVE PROTEINS THEIR FORM AND THEIR FUNCTION

What is the name of the bond linking amino acids together to form peptides?

PEPTIDE BOND

What is the term used to describe a chain of amino acids?

POLYPEPTIDE 

How is a polypeptide different from a protein?

IT HAS A CHAIN OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS ONLY CONTAIN ONE OR MORE POLYPEPTIDES.

Name the four levels of protein structure and how they are different.

PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY QUATERNARY PRIMARY IS THE SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS IN THE POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN, SECONDARY IS THE FOLDING OF POLYPEPTIDE REGIONS OF THE CHAIN, TERTIARY IS THE 3D FOLDING RESULTS FROM COMPLEX CHEMICAL REACTION ON THE POLYPEPTIDE INTERACTIONS. QUATERNARY 

What are the two most common secondary structures?  Which type of  bond holds the secondary structures together?

A HELIX AND THE B PLEATED SHEET. HYDROGEN BONDS HOLD THEM TOGETHER

Which types of bonds hold the tertiary structure together?  

HYDROPHOBIC INTERACTIONS, IONIC BONDING AND HYDROGEN BONDING

What term describes the polypeptides that interact to form a quaternary structure?

SUB UNIT 

Explain what “denaturation” is and give examples of conditions under which it may occur.  

A LOSS OF PROTEIN FUNCTION 

Name the two main types of nucleic acids and their functions

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) AND RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) 

DEOXY CONTROLS ALL CELLULAR ACTIVITIES BY TURNING GENES ON AND OFF AND RIBON IS THE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF DNA

What are the monomers that make up nucleic acids called?

NITROGEN BASE PENTOSE SUGAR AND PHOSPHATE GROUPS 

How do the monomers differ between DNA and RNA?

RNA IS USUALLY SINGLE STRANDED AND DNA HAS A DOUBLE HELIX STRUCTURE 

What is the name of the bond between the phosphate group and the sugar group that joins the backbone of nucleic acid molecules?  

PHOSPHODIESTER LINKAGE 

What type of bond is found linking the nitrogenous bases?

THE LADDER HYDROGEN BOND

Know whether DNA and RNA is double or single-stranded.

DNA IS SINGLE STRANDED AND RNA IS SINGLE STRANDED 

What is the unified cell theory, and what does it say? 

ALL LIVING THINGS ARE COMPOSED OF CELLS, THE CELL IS THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE, AND NEW CELLS ARISE FROM EXISTING CELLS

Name the four components common to all living cells.

A PLASMA MEMBRANE, CYTOPLASM, DNA, RIBOSOMES 

What are the two broad categories of cells?

PROKARYOTIC CELLS AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Describe the major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

PROKARYOTES LACK MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES, AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS 

Describe the outer layers that might be found on a prokaryotic cell.

PLASMA MEMBRANE, CELL WALL, AND CAPSULE

What are flagella, pili, and fimbriae?

THEY ARE ALL USED FOR MOVEMENT REPRODUCTION, OR ATTACHMENT 

Which is larger, a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell?

EUKARYOTIC CELLS 

Explain how the surface area-to-volume ratio limits cells in their size.

(0.1-5.0 UM IN DIAMETER) IS PROKARYOTIC AND (10-100 UM DIAMETER) FOR EUKARYOTIC) 

Plasma membrane

PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER WITH EMBEDDED PROTEINS 

Cell wall

MADE OF PEPTIDOGLYCAN FOR STRUCTURE AND PROTEIN AGAINST DEHYDRATION 

Cytoplasm

THE SEMI SOLID GEL LIKE REGION BETWEEN THE INSIDE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE AND NUCLEAR ENVELOPE 

Nucleus, nucleolus, nucleoplasm, nuclear envelope

NUCLEUS HOUSES EUKARYOTIC CELLS GENETIC MATERIAL 

NUCLEOLUS THE DARKLY STAINING AREA OF THE NUCLEUS 

NUCLEOPLASM THE SUBSTANCE OF A NUCLEUS 

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE IT ALLOWS COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE NUCLEOPLASM AND THE CYTOPLASM OF THE CELL

Chromatin, chromosomes

CHROMATIN IS THREAD LIKE LOOSELY ORGANIZED FORM OF GENETIC MATERIAL THAT OCCURS DURING THE NORMAL GROWTH AND MAINTENANCE PHASES OF THE CELL LIFE CYCLE. 

CHROMOSOMES ARE THE VISIBLE, DENSE LINEAR FORMS OF CHROMATIN THAT OCCUR JUST PRIOR TO THE CELL DIVISION

Ribosomes

CELLULAR STRUCTURE RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 

Mitochondria

THE CELLULAR ORGANELLES RESPONSIBLE FOR MAKING THE MAIN ENERGY CARRYING MOLECULE, ATP (POWERHOUSE)

Chloroplasts, chlorophyll

CHLOROPLASTS ARE PLANT CELL ORGANELLES THAT CARRY OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS

CHLOROPHYLL IS THE COLORED PIGMENT THAT CAPTURES LIGHT ENERGY 

Central vacuole

LARGE CENTRAL VACUOLE THAT OCCUPIES MOST OF THE AREA OF THE CELL

Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth)

ROUGH ER ARE THE RIBOSOMES THAT ARE ATTACHED TO ITS EXTENSIVE SURFACE AREA. 

SMOOTH ER HAS LITTLE TO NO RIBOSOMES ON ITS MEMBRANOUS SURFACE 

Golgi apparatus

AN ORGANELLE THAT RESEMBLES A SERIES OF FLATTENED MEMBRANES 

Lysosomes

ONLY FOUND IN ANIMAL CELLS, BREAKDOWN MOLECULES, RECYCLED ORGANELLES, AND PATHOGENS INSIDE THE CELL 

Cytoskeleton (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules)

MICROFILAMENTS IS THE FUNCTION IN CELLULAR MOVEMENT 

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS ARE CAPABLE OF BEARING TENSION, THEY ANCHOR THE NUCLEUS AND OTHER ORGANELLES IN PLACE 

MICROTUBULES A MICROSCOPIC TUBULAR STRUCTURE PRESENT IN NUMBERS IN CYTOPLASM OF CELLS

Extracellular matrix

THE COLLAGEN FIBERS BOND WITH SPECIALIZED CARBOHYDRATES

What is ATP?

ENERGY STORAGE 

What is the “Endomembrane System” and how does it work?

ITS A GROUP OF MEMBRANES AND ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS THAT MODIFY PACKAGE AND TRANSPORT LIPIDS AND PROTEINS 

Describe what is meant by the “fluid mosaic” model of the cell membrane.

IT'S A MOSAIC OF COMPONENTS 

What are the four main components of a plasma membrane?

PHOSPHOLIPIDS, CHOLESTEROL, PROTEINS, AND CARBOHYDRATES 

Define the following terms:  amphiphilic, integral protein, selective permeability, concentration gradient, diffusion, osmosis, equilibrium, aquaporins, tonicity, electrochemical gradient, endocytosis, and exocytosis

AMPHIPHILIC ARE HYDROPHILIC AND HYDROPHOBIC 

INTEGRAL PROTEIN ARE INTEGRATED INTO THE MEMBRANE 

SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY ARE CELLULAR MEMBRANES THAT ONLY ALLOW CERTAIN MOLECULES TO ENTER OR EXIT THE CELL

CONCENTRATION GRADIENT 

DIFFUSION IS THE PASSIVE, RANDOM MOVEMENT OF A SUBSTANCE FROM AN AREA OF HIGHER CONCENTRATION TO AN ARE OF LOWER CONCENTRATION 

OSMOSIS THE DIFFUSION OF WATER MOLECULES 

EQUILIBRIUM THE SLOWER THE RATE OF DIFFUSION BECOMES 

AQUAPORINS SPECIAL CHANNEL PROTEINS THAT ALLOW WATER TO PASS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE 

TONICITY THE VOLUME OF A CELL 

ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT THE USE OF ENERGY 

ENDOCYTOSIS A TYPE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT THAT MOVES LARGE SUBSTANCES

EXOCYTOSIS THE PROCESS OF MOVING LARGE SUBSTANCES OUT OF A CELL 

Which molecular structures on the phospholipid are responsible for giving it the hydrophobic and hydrophilic nature.

SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY 

Is the membrane-spanning region of an integral protein hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

HYDROPHOBIC 

How do peripheral proteins differ from integral proteins?

PERIPHERAL IS FOUND ON THE SURFACE AND INTEGRAL IS FOUND IN THE MEMBRANE 

Describe the conditions under which carbohydrates are associated with the plasma membrane.  

THEY GIVE THE MEMBRANE A FLUID CHARACTER 

What is the glycocalyx and why is it important to cells?  

THEY ARE REFERRED TO AS SUGAR COATING ITS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT AIDS IN BRINGING DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES INTO CONTACT WITH THE CELL WALL 

What is the function of the cholesterol found incorporated into the plasma membrane of animal cells?

CHOLESTEROL EXTENDS THE RANGE OF TEMPERATURES AT WHICH THE MEMBRANE CAN MAINTAIN A FUNCTIONAL FLUIDITY 

Name several types of molecules that would likely be able to cross the plasma membrane.  Name several types of molecules that would likely not.

FACILITATED DIFFUSION, ELECTRICAL CHARGE, OSMOSIS ARE ABLE TO CROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE. NA+/K ATP ASE: H+/K+ATPASE WOULD NOT TRANSFER ACROSS THE CELL.

Which specific types of transport require energy and which do not? 

ACTIVE TRANSPORT PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT REQUIRES ENERGY 

PASSIVE TRANSPORT DOES NOT REQUIRE ENERGY SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Be able to discuss the factors that influence the rate of diffusion for a particular substance.

DENSITY OF THE MEDIUM. AS THE DENSITY OF A SOLVENT INCREASES, THE RATE OF DIFFUSION DECREASES. THE MOLECULES SLOW DOWN BECAUSE THEY HAVE A MORE DIFFICULT TIME GETTING THROUGH THE DENSER MEDIUM.

Understand how integral transmembrane proteins function as the two types of transport proteins in facilitated diffusion.

CHANNEL PROTEINS ARE EITHER OPEN AT ALL TIMES OR THEY ARE “GATED”

CARRIER PROTEINS BIND TO A SUBSTANCE TO ALLOW ITS PASSAGE INTO OR OUT OF THE CELL

Know which parts of a channel protein are hydrophobic and which are hydrophilic and why.

CHANNEL PROTEINS ARE HYDROPHILIC BECAUSE THE CHANNEL ALLOWS PASSAGE OF SPECIFIC POLAR SUBSTANCE THROUGH THE LIPID.

CARRIER PROTEINS ARE HYDROPHOBIC THEY INTERACT WITH THE MOLECULES ON BOTH SIDES OF THE MEMBRANE

What is the main energy form that active transport uses?

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE

Be familiar with the sodium-potassium pump and how it works.

THE SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMO USES ATP TO MOVE THE SODIUM AND POTASSIUM IONS IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE 

What is the difference between the uniporter, symporter, and antiporter transport protein pumps?

UNIPORTER CARRIES ONE SPECIFIC ION OR MOLECULE, SYMPORTER CARRIES TWO DIFFERENT IONS OR MOLECULES, BOTH IN THE SAME DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT. ANTIPORTER CARRIES TWO DIFFERENT IONS OR MOLECULES IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS OF MOVEMENT 

How is bulk transport different from other forms of active transport

ITS DIFFERENT BECUASE ITS USED WHEN CELLS NEED TO TAKE IN OR REMOVE LARGER MOLECULES AND PARTICLES THAT CANNOT PASS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE