Religion Definitions & Core Traits: 19th-20th Century Perspectives, Indigenous & World Religions

19th Century definitions (Tylor, James)

Focused on belief in supernatural beings; too narrow, Western bias. Treated "religion" as separate from culture/society.

20th Century definitions

Shift to functional/phenomenological views (meaning, experience, practice).

"Family resemblance" - no single definition fits all; religions share overlapping traits.

Family resemblance

Concept by Wittgenstein - useful for understanding religion's diversity without rigid categories.

Exclusivism

Only one religion is true.

Inclusivism

One is fully true, others partly true.

Pluralism

Many paths to ultimate reality.

Relativism

All truths are context-based; no universal truth.

Indigenous Religions Core Traits

1. Plural, diverse, local - 'religions,' not one 'Indigenous Religion.'

2. No separation between secular/religious

3. Oral Tradition - transmitted through stories, rituals

4. Nature-centured - spirits in natural world (animism)

5. Pragmatic - focus on life here and now, not afterlilfe

6. Syncretism - blending with other religions

Plural, diverse, local

"religions", not one "Indigenous Religion

Oral tradition

Transmitted through stories, rituals.

Nature-centered

Spirits in natural world (animism).

Pragmatic

Focus on life here and now, not afterlife.

Syncretism

Blending with other religions (e.g., Christianity + Indigenous).

Mana

Spiritual power.

Animism

All things have spirit.

Shaman

Mediator between spirit and human worlds.

Syncretism

religious blending

Yoruba Religion

Origin: West Africa (Nigeria, Benin, Togo). Polytheistic but recognizes a supreme God (Olodumare) - distant/otiose.

Orisha(s)

Deities/spirits mediating between humans & Olodumare.

Ashe

Divine life force in all things.

Ifa Divination

System for communication with the divine.

Orunmila

Orisha of wisdom/ divination

Babalawo

Diviner interprets messages; client participates.

Decatholicization/Africanization

reclaiming African identity in diaspora religions.

Hinduism

Term 'Hinduism' coined by British colonizers - covers diverse Indian traditions. Combines polytheism + monotheism (many gods, one divine essence).

Shruti ("heard")

revealed texts

smrti ("remembered")

humanly composed

Indus Valley

Earliest roots; script undeciphered

Vedic Religion

Rituals, oral transmission in Sanskrit: 4 Vedas-Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva

Problem-Solution-Techniques

Problem: Cosmic disorder.

Solution: Maintain Rta (cosmic order) via sacrifice.

Techniques: Rituals, hymns, offerings.

Brahman

Ultimate reality.

Rta

Cosmic order.

Dharma

Duty, moral order.

Karma

Action and its result.

Reincarnation

Rebirth cycle.

Varna Dharma

caste-based duty

Karma Yoga

Path of selfless action.

Attain moksha through doing duty without attachment.

Reinterprets karma as intentionless action.

Exemplar: Arjuna in Bhagavad Gita.

Jnana Yoga

Path of knowledge.

Practices: meditation, asceticism, neti neti ("not this, not that").

Key concepts:

Nirguna Brahman - God without attributes.

Atman = Brahman - self = ultimate reality.

Maya - illusion.

Bhakti Yoga

Path of devotion.

Attain moksha through love/devotion to a personal god.

Saguna Brahman - God with attributes (avatars like Krishna, Rama).

Murti - sacred image (not mere idol); material form as divine.

Puja/Darshan - ritual offerings and seeing the deity.

Synthetic/universalizing

blends traditions, promotes unity.

Nationalistic tendency

Hindu identity linked to Indian nationhood.

Buddhism

Developed from Hindu background (~5th c. BCE).

Geography: South, East, and Southeast Asia.

Middle Way

avoid extremes of indulgence and asceticism.

Four Noble Truths

1. Life involves suffering (dukkha).

2. Cause = desire/craving (tanha).

3. End = cessation of desire → nirvana.

4. Path = Eightfold Path.

Problem-Solution

Problem: Suffering (dukkha).

Solution: Nirvana (liberation from craving).

Techniques: Following the Eightfold Path.

Anatman

'No-self'; rejects eternal soul (contrast to Hindu Atman).

Anicca

impermanence

Nirvana

Liberation, end of craving

Eightfold Path

Ethical and mental discipline integrated into daily life.