AP Gov Khan Academy Terms

Constitutional Convention

Also called the Philadelphia Convention. A meeting of delegates from 12 of the 13 states to revise or replace the Articles of Confederation with a new Constitution featuring a stronger central government.

limited government

A political system in which the government’s power is restricted by laws or a written Constitution.

natural rights

The right to life, liberty, and property, which no government may take away.

republicanism

The principle of governing through elected representatives.

social contract

An agreement between people and government in which citizens consent to be governed so long as the government protects their natural rights.

John Adams

Massachusetts statesman and leader in the movement for American independence. Adams aided Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence.

Ben Franklin

Pennsylvania statesman and leader in the movement for American independence. Franklin aided Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence.

Alexander Hamilton

New York statesman who promoted replacing the Articles of Confederation with a stronger central government. He coauthored the Federalist Papers, which argued in favor of ratifying the Constitution

Thomas Jefferson

Principal author of the Declaration of Independence.

James Madison

Virginia statesman and major contributor to the US Constitution. He coauthored the Federalist Papers and wrote the Bill of Rights.

George Washington

Revolutionary War general who presided over the Constitutional Convention.

Participatory democracy

model of democracy in which citizens have the power to decide directly on policy and politicians are responsible for implementing those policy decisions.

Pluralist democracy

model of democracy in which no one group dominates politics and organized groups compete with each other to influence policy.

Elite democracy

model of democracy in which a small number of people, usually those who are wealthy and well-educated, influence political decision making.

democratic republic

system of government in which the power to govern comes from the people, but elected officials represent their interests. This system of government allows American citizens to participate in government in many ways

Articles of Confederation

United States’ first constitution, lasting from 1776 until 1789. The Articles established a weak central government and placed most powers in the hands of the states.

Shays’s Rebellion

uprising of Revolutionary War veterans in Massachusetts that both the state and national governments struggled to address due to a lack of centralized military power, illustrated the need to create a stronger governing system

Confederation Congress

The central government under the Articles of Confederation, composed of delegates chosen by state governments. Each state had one vote in the Congress, regardless of its population. The Congress had difficulty legislating as the Articles required nine of the thirteen states to vote to approve any measure, and a unanimous vote in order to amend the Articles themselves.

Federalist No. 10

essay written by James Madison, in which he argues that a strong central government will control the effects of factions.

Brutus No. 1

Anti-Federalist essay that argued against a strong central government, based on the belief that it would not be able to meet the needs of all US citizens.

congressional proposal method

proposal by 2/3 of both houses of congress → passage by ¾ of state legislatures

convention method

proposal by 2/3 vote of national convention → pasage by ¾ of special state conventions

amendment

A change to the United States Constitution.

Article V

The section of the Constitution that details how to amend the Constitution, either through a congressional proposal or a convention of the states, with final ratification from three-fourths of the states.

Great Compromise

Also known as the Connecticut Compromise, a major compromise at the Constitutional Convention that created a two-house legislature, with the Senate having equal representation for all states and the House of Representatives having representation proportional to state populations

Electoral College

body of representatives from every state in the United States who formally cast votes to elect the president and vice president

Three-Fifths Compromise

agreement added to the Constitution that would count each enslaved person as three-fifths of a white person for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives

access point

point in the policymaking process where ordinary citizens can influence government

checks and balance

Aspects of the Constitution that require each branch of the federal government to gain the consent of the other two in order to act

faction

interest group seeking to influence government for the benefit of its members. The Framers sought to prevent any one faction from gaining too much power

majority

largest group that shares an opinion on any one issue, for example, whether to declare war or support a tax

minority

smaller group with a differing opinion on any one issue. The Framers sought to keep majority opinions from trampling minority opinions

impeachment

bringing of formal charges against a government officer for alleged crimes or abuses of power

removal

Removing a government officer from office after impeachment proceedings resulted in a conviction

separation of powers

Aspects of the Constitution that ascribe different elements of power to different branches of the government, which act independently. This keeps one branch of government from controlling the others

stakeholder

person with an interest or a concern in a political issue

Federalism

describes the system of shared governance between national and state governments

block grants

Federal grants issued to states or local governments to support broad programs

categorical grants

Federal grants restricted to specific purposes

concurrent powers

Powers shared by the federal government and state governments, e.g. lawmaking and taxation

exclusive powers

Powers reserved either to the federal government or state governments

federalism

Political system that organizes government into two or more levels with independent powers; in the United States this consists of local, state, and national governments

federal revenue sharing

practice of sharing federal income tax revenue with state and local governments

mandate

requirement that states or local governments meet a specific condition in order to receive federal aid

commerce clause

Part of Article I of the Constitution that gives Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce (buying and selling of goods across state lines)

enumerated powers

Powers of the federal government that are explicitly named in the Constitution

implied powers

Powers of the federal government that are not explicitly named in the Constitution but are implied so that the federal government can carry out its enumerated powers

necessary and proper clause

Part of Article I of the Constitution that gives Congress the power to create laws that they find “necessary and proper” for performing their constitutional responsibilities

House of Representatives

lower chamber of Congress, in which the number of representatives per state is determined by the state’s population, with 435 Representatives total. Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms, so they are up for reelection every two years.

constituents

voters in a legislative district

coalition

alliance of political groups pursuing a common goal

cloture

Senate procedure through which a supermajority of 60 senators can vote to limit the amount of time spent debating a bill and cut off a filibuster

Committee of the Whole

A committee of the House on which all representatives serve in order to consider the details of a proposal

discharge petition

petition signed by members of the House of Representatives to bring a bill out of committee and onto the floor for a vote

filibuster

tactic used by senators to block a bill by continuing to hold the floor and speak, adhering to the Senate rule of unlimited debate. The purpose of this tactic is to continue to speak for so long that the bill’s supporters eventually back down

House Rules Committee

committee responsible for scheduling and managing the flow of legislation on the floor of the House of Representatives in order to make the process more efficient and manageable. The committee can also make it easier or more difficult for a bill to pass depending on the rules they create

logrolling

two legislators agree to trade votes for each other’s benefit

pork barrel legislation

use of federal funding to finance localized projects, typically bringing money into a representative’s district in order to please constituents and boost the representative’s chances of winning reelection

President of the Senate

Vice President of the United States, who presides over the Senate’s daily proceedings

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives and de facto leader of the majority party

gridlock

government is unable to reach compromises or make policy decisions

partisan

firm supporter of one political party

redistricting

process of adjusting electoral districts in the United States

gerrymandering

act of changing the boundaries of an electoral district to favor one party over another

divided government

When one party controls one or more houses in the legislative branch while the other party controls the executive branch

'lame duck'

elected official who continues to hold political office during the period between the election and the inauguration of their successo

trustee

member of Congress who takes into account the views of their constituents and use their own judgment to decide how to vote

delegate

member of Congress who always follows their constituents’ voting preferences

politico

A member of Congress who acts as a delegate on issues that their constituents care about, and as a trustee on issues that their constituents don’t care about

cabinet

group of presidential advisers, including the heads of the executive departments, the attorney general, and other officials chosen by the president

executive agreement

international agreement between the president and another country, which does not require the consent of the Senate

executive order

presidential order to the executive branch that carries the force of law. The Supreme Court can rule executive orders unconstitutional

pocket veto

indirect veto, which the president can use by neither signing or vetoing a bill passed by Congress fewer than 10 days before it adjourns

signing statement

presidential statement upon signing a bill into law, which explains how a president’s administration intends to interpret the law

State of the Union address

president’s annual message to a joint session of Congress, which includes recommended legislation and evaluations of the nation’s top priorities and economic health

veto

president’s constitutional right to reject a law passed by Congress. Congress may override the president’s veto with a two-thirds vote

presidential nomination

president’s formal proposal of a candidate to fill a position, such as a cabinet member or Supreme Court justic

confirmation

Senate approval of a presidential nomination

formal powers

Powers expressly granted to the president under Article II of the Constitution. Examples include making treaties, commanding the military, appointing Supreme Court justices, and vetoing legislation

informal powers

Powers claimed by presidents as necessary in order to execute the law. Examples include issuing executive orders and negotiating executive agreements

War Powers Act (1973)

Also called the War Powers Resolution, the War Powers Act limits the president’s power to deploy US armed forces. Every president since Nixon has contested the War Powers Act as an infringement of their role as Commander in Chief of the armed forces

inferior courts

called lower courts, inferior courts include all US federal courts below the Supreme Court, including courts of appeals, district courts, and federal tribunals. Congress retains the power to establish inferior courts and to determine how they operate

John Marshall

influential Chief Justice of the United States who led the Supreme Court from 1801-1835. Marshall wrote several foundational Court decisions, including Marbury v. Madison and McCulloch v. Maryland, which enhanced the power of the judicial branch and affirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law

judicial independence

Factors that prevent members of the legislative and executive branches from influencing Supreme Court justices, including lifetime appointments for justices and a ban on salary decreases for sitting justice

judicial review

Supreme Court’s power to review whether acts of the legislative branch, the executive branch, and state governments are consistent with the Constitution, and to strike down acts it finds unconstitutional

Supreme Court

The highest federal court of the United States, established by Article III of the US Constitution, with nine sitting justices today. Unlike inferior courts, the Supreme Court is shielded from the influence of Congress, which cannot change its jurisdiction or the salaries of sitting justices

stare decisis

principle of making legal decisions based on past precedents. From the Latin for “let the decision stand.”

court-curbing measures

Strategies for reducing the power of the Supreme Court or the impact of its rulings

jurisdiction

field of authority a court has to make legal judgments and decisions

legitimacy of the Supreme Court

public trust in, and willingness to accept the rulings of, the Supreme Court

judicial activism

belief that the role of a justice is to defend individual rights and liberties, even those not explicitly stated in the Constitution

jurisdiction

extent of the power a court has to make legal judgments and decisions

bureaucracy

administrative group of nonelected officials charged with implementing policies created by the other branches of government

civil service

permanent, professional branches of government administration. The civil service is nonpartisan and its employees are hired and promoted based on merit rather than patronage

iron triangle

longstanding, mutually-beneficial relationship between an interest group, congressional committee, and bureaucratic agency devoted to similar issues

issue network

group of individuals, public officials, and interest groups that form around a particular issue, usually a proposed public policy that they wish to support or defeat

patronage (spoils system)

the practice of hiring and promoting individuals based on their political support for a party or candidate rather than on their merit