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Psychology
The scientific study of the mind and behavior
Behavior
Actions that are directly observable, measurable, and replicable
Mental Processes
All the things that the human mind can do naturally - NOT directly observable
Philosophy
The intellectual discipline that uses careful reasoned argument to elucidate fundamental questions, notably those concerning the nature of reality (metaphysics), the nature of knowledge (epistemology), and the nature of moral judgments (ethics)
Physiology
The science of the functions of organisms, including the chemical and physical processes involved and the activities of the cells, tissues, and organs, as opposed to static anatomical or structural factors
Structuralism
Covers the basic structures of the human mind and focuses on the contents of mental processes rather than their function
Functionalism
Studies the interaction between the mind and the surrounding environment, and the function of behavior in the world - focuses on the operation of the mind as a whole rather than on the workings of its individual parts
William Wundt
Founded the first psychology laboratory in Germany
Studied awareness of immediate experience (reaction time)
Developed introspection (or “internal perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible
Developed structuralism
E.B. Titchener
Learned to use the introspective method and structuralism as an apprentice of Wundt’s
Contributed to the concept of structuralism
William James
First American psychologist
Developed the concept of “stream of consciousness”, the idea that a person’s thoughts and conscious reactions to events flow continuously
Developed functionalism
Mary W. Calkins
Earned, yet was denied her Harvard degree
Margaret F. Washburn
First female to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
Kenneth Clark/Mamie Phipps Clark
Best known for their studies conducted on African American children and doll preference, research that was instrumental in the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court desegregation case
Francis C. Sumner
First African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology
George I. Sanchez
Recognized for his contributions to educational equity, especially for Mexican-American children
Psychoanalytic Approach
Focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and the impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life
Considers conflicts between internal motivations and society’s demands
Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do our unfulfilled desires in childhood result in feelings of anxiety?”
Behavioral Approach
Focuses on observing and controlling behavior
Considers environmental determinants
Focuses on how we learn behavior
Makes use of strict methodology and experimental methods
Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do we learn to be anxious in certain situations?”
Humanistic Approach
Emphasizes the potential for good that exists within all people
Focuses on the positive qualities of individuals
Psychologists using this approach would say, “You have the potential to understand your anxiety.”
Cognitive Approach
Focuses on the mental processes involved in the acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of knowledge, otherwise referred to as information processing
Studies primarily focus on memory, attention span, problem solving capabilities, etc.
Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do we retrieve information in our memory about situations in which we feel anxious?”
Multicultural Approach
Emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior
Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “What cultural factors contribute to anxiety within a certain group?”
Cross-Cultural Approach
Involves differences between particular cultural groups
Makes use of descriptive science, descriptive research involving observing, recording, describing, and classifying phenomena
Psychologists using this approach might pose the questions, “How do rates of anxiety differ across cultures? What cultural groups are most affected by anxiety?”
Biopsychological Approach
Focuses on the brain and the nervous system in relation to behavior, thought, and emotion
Incorporates neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system
Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do levels of certain neurotransmitters in our brains relate to our feelings of anxiety?”
Evolutionary Approach
Focuses on the importance of adaptation and the concept of “survival of the fittest”, or behaviors that increase reproductive success
Psychologists using this approach might think, “How do genetics impact behavior?”
Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How did experiencing anxiety protect our ancestors?”
Eclectic Approach
Selects and uses components of each psychological approach
Positive Approach
Focuses on valuable experiences and positive individual traits and values
The American Psychological Association (APA)
Professional organization representing psychologists in the United States that aims to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge for the betterment of people
The American Association for Psychological Science (APS)
Founding resulted from disagreements between members of the scientific and clinical branches of psychology - seeks to advance the scientific orientation of psychology
Hindsight Bias
The common tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were - "I knew it all along!"
False Consensus Effect
People assume that their personal qualities, characteristics, beliefs, and actions are relatively widespread through the general population
Overconfidence
A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one’s actual ability to perform a task successfully, by a belief that one’s performance is better than that of others, or by excessive certainty in the accuracy of one’s beliefs
Theory
A set of well-developed ideas that explain and predict observations
Hypothesis
A testable prediction generated from a theory
Step 1 of Scientific Method
Observe a phenomenon
Step 2 of Scientific Method
Generate a hypothesis
Step 3 of Scientific Method
Collect data
Step 4 of Scientific Method
Analyze data
Step 5 of Scientific Method
Summarize data and report findings
Operational Definition
Defines the variable as it exists in the present study
Variable
Anything that can change
Independent Variable
Manipulated, influential variable
Dependent Variable
Variable that is measured
Experimental Group
Group who receives the effects of the independent variable
Control Group
Group who does not receive the effects of the independent variable
Random Assignment
When an investigator places their participants into control and experimental groups at random
Experimental Research
Examines causes of behavior
Population
The entire group that an investigator wants to study
Sample
The subset of the population that's chosen by the investigator to study; the larger the size of this, the more accurate the results of the study will be
Random Sample
A subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between the relative movements of two variables
Positive Correlation
A relationship between two variables that move in the same direction
Negative Correlation
A relationship between two variables that move in opposite directions
Scatterplot
A type of plot used to display the relationship between two numerical variables, and plots one dot for each observation
Correlational Research
Describes the association between two variables; important to note that a confounding variable (third variable that affects both variables) may also be present
Archival Research
Research that involves searching for and extracting information and evidence from existing records
Case Study
An in-depth study of one person, group, or event
Survey
A data collection tool used to gather information about individuals; usually presented as a list of questions
Observational Research
Research in which the experimenter passively observes the behavior of the participants without any attempt at intervention or manipulation of the behaviors being observed
Descriptive Research
Used by researchers and psychologists to gather information in order to describe the specifics of behaviors, patterns, and other phenomena
Experimenter Bias
Researchers expectations influence the outcome of a study
Participant Bias
Participants involved in research respond in a manner that suggests they are trying to match up with the desired results of the researcher
Placebo effect
When an improvement of symptoms is observed, despite using a nonactive treatment
Double-Blind Experiment
A study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment
Gender Bias
One gender is treated in a more or less favorable way, based on gender stereotypes rather than real differences
Ethnic Gloss
An overgeneralization or simplistic categorical label used to refer to ethnocultural groups where unique cultural and ethnic differences found among group members are ignored
Central Nervous System
Comprised of the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
The portion of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord
Somatic Nervous System
Associated with the voluntary control of bodily movements via the use of skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System
Regulates a variety of bodily process that take place without conscious effort
Sympathetic Nervous System
Involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Functions to conserve the body's natural activity, and relaxes the individual once an emergency has passed
Neuron
A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system
Sensory Neuron
Nerve cells which carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors towards the central nervous system and brain
Motor Neuron
Nerve cells responsible for carrying signals away from the central nervous system towards muscles to cause movement
Interneuron
Any neuron that is neither sensory nor motor, but connects other neurons within the central nervous system
Soma
The cell body where the nucleus lies, which controls the cell and is also where proteins are produced to maintain the functioning of the neuron
Dendrites
The branch-like structures found at the ends of the neuron; the neuron uses these structures to send and receive information from other neurons
Axon
The long extension structure stemming from the soma; works to transmit information it receives down its body to the dendrites at the end of the neuron
Terminal Buttons
Hold synaptic vesicles, which store neurotransmitters; located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons
Synapse
The small gap between two neurons, where nerve impulses are relayed by a neurotransmitter from the axon of a presynaptic (sending) neuron to the dendrite of a postsynaptic (receiving) neuron
Synaptic Cleft
The space between neurons at a nerve synapse across which a nerve impulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter
Myelin Sheath
The protective layer that wraps around the axons of neurons to aid in insulating the neurons, and to increase the number of electrical signals being transferred
Multiple Sclerosis
A disease of the central nervous system characterized by inflammation and multifocal scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission
Ion
An atom or molecule that has acquired an electrical charge by gaining or losing one or more electrons
Ion Channel
A group of proteins forming a channel that spans a cell membrane, allowing the passage of ions between the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm of the cell
Resting Potential
The imbalance of electrical charge that exists between the interior of electrically excitable neurons and their surroundings
Depolarization
A reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface
Action Potential
Occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body
Reuptake
The reabsorption by a neuron of a neurotransmitter following the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse
Threshold
The lowest point at which a particular stimulus will cause a response in an organism
All-or-None Principle
The strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus; essentially, an action potential is either all or nothing, meaning that the neuron will either fire or not fire
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers in the body
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Critical to motor movement, learning, and memory; plays a large part in scheduling REM (dream) sleep
Beta-Endorphins
Responsible for pain control, stress reduction, and pleasureful feelings; often referred to as "natural opiates"
Dopamine
Responsible for motor movement, alertness, good feelings, aggression, thinking, and planning
GABA
Brain's major inhibitory neurotransmitter; responsible for anxiety reduction and insomnia reduction
Glutamate
Brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter; creates links between neurons that form the basis of learning and long-term memory
Norepinephrine
Linked to "fight or flight" response; controls alertness, arousal, heart rate elevation, circulation, respiration, and mood elevation
Serotonin
Responsible for mood regulation, hunger, sleep, sexual desire, decreased anxiety, and problems with anger control
Cerebral Cortex
Collectively responsible for the higher-level processes of the human brain including language, memory, reasoning, thought, learning, decision-making, emotion, intelligence, and personality
Lateralization
The view that different functions are performed by distinct regions of the brain