PBSI 107 FLASHCARDS: Exam #1

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior

Behavior

Actions that are directly observable, measurable, and replicable

Mental Processes

All the things that the human mind can do naturally - NOT directly observable

Philosophy

The intellectual discipline that uses careful reasoned argument to elucidate fundamental questions, notably those concerning the nature of reality (metaphysics), the nature of knowledge (epistemology), and the nature of moral judgments (ethics)

Physiology

The science of the functions of organisms, including the chemical and physical processes involved and the activities of the cells, tissues, and organs, as opposed to static anatomical or structural factors

Structuralism

Covers the basic structures of the human mind and focuses on the contents of mental processes rather than their function

Functionalism

Studies the interaction between the mind and the surrounding environment, and the function of behavior in the world - focuses on the operation of the mind as a whole rather than on the workings of its individual parts

William Wundt

> Founded the first psychology laboratory in Germany

> Studied awareness of immediate experience (reaction time)

> Developed introspection (or “internal perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible

> Developed structuralism

E.B. Titchener

> Learned to use the introspective method and structuralism as an apprentice of Wundt’s

> Contributed to the concept of structuralism

William James

> First American psychologist

> Developed the concept of “stream of consciousness”, the idea that a person’s thoughts and conscious reactions to events flow continuously

> Developed functionalism

Mary W. Calkins

Earned, yet was denied her Harvard degree

Margaret F. Washburn

First female to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

Kenneth Clark/Mamie Phipps Clark

Best known for their studies conducted on African American children and doll preference, research that was instrumental in the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court desegregation case

Francis C. Sumner

First African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology

George I. Sanchez

Recognized for his contributions to educational equity, especially for Mexican-American children

Psychoanalytic Approach

> Focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and the impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life

> Considers conflicts between internal motivations and society’s demands

> Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do our unfulfilled desires in childhood result in feelings of anxiety?”

Behavioral Approach

> Focuses on observing and controlling behavior

> Considers environmental determinants

> Focuses on how we learn behavior

> Makes use of strict methodology and experimental methods

> Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do we learn to be anxious in certain situations?”

Humanistic Approach

> Emphasizes the potential for good that exists within all people

> Focuses on the positive qualities of individuals

> Psychologists using this approach would say, “You have the potential to understand your anxiety.”

Cognitive Approach

> Focuses on the mental processes involved in the acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of knowledge, otherwise referred to as information processing

> Studies primarily focus on memory, attention span, problem solving capabilities, etc.

> Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do we retrieve information in our memory about situations in which we feel anxious?”

Multicultural Approach

> Emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior

> Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “What cultural factors contribute to anxiety within a certain group?”

Cross-Cultural Approach

> Involves differences between particular cultural groups

> Makes use of descriptive science, descriptive research involving observing, recording, describing, and classifying phenomena

> Psychologists using this approach might pose the questions, “How do rates of anxiety differ across cultures? What cultural groups are most affected by anxiety?”

Biopsychological Approach

> Focuses on the brain and the nervous system in relation to behavior, thought, and emotion

> Incorporates neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system

> Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How do levels of certain neurotransmitters in our brains relate to our feelings of anxiety?”

Evolutionary Approach

> Focuses on the importance of adaptation and the concept of “survival of the fittest”, or behaviors that increase reproductive success

> Psychologists using this approach might think, “How do genetics impact behavior?”

> Psychologists using this approach might pose the question, “How did experiencing anxiety protect our ancestors?”

Eclectic Approach

Selects and uses components of each psychological approach

Positive Approach

Focuses on valuable experiences and positive individual traits and values

The American Psychological Association (APA)

Professional organization representing psychologists in the United States that aims to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge for the betterment of people

The American Association for Psychological Science (APS)

Founding resulted from disagreements between members of the scientific and clinical branches of psychology - seeks to advance the scientific orientation of psychology

Hindsight Bias

The common tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were - "I knew it all along!"

False Consensus Effect

People assume that their personal qualities, characteristics, beliefs, and actions are relatively widespread through the general population

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one’s actual ability to perform a task successfully, by a belief that one’s performance is better than that of others, or by excessive certainty in the accuracy of one’s beliefs

Theory

A set of well-developed ideas that explain and predict observations

Hypothesis

A testable prediction generated from a theory

Step 1 of Scientific Method

Observe a phenomenon

Step 2 of Scientific Method

Generate a hypothesis

Step 3 of Scientific Method

Collect data

Step 4 of Scientific Method

Analyze data

Step 5 of Scientific Method

Summarize data and report findings

Operational Definition

Defines the variable as it exists in the present study

Variable

Anything that can change

Independent Variable

Manipulated, influential variable

Dependent Variable

Variable that is measured

Experimental Group

Group who receives the effects of the independent variable

Control Group

Group who does not receive the effects of the independent variable

Random Assignment

When an investigator places their participants into control and experimental groups at random

Experimental Research

Examines causes of behavior

Population

The entire group that an investigator wants to study

Sample

The subset of the population that's chosen by the investigator to study; the larger the size of this, the more accurate the results of the study will be

Random Sample

A subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between the relative movements of two variables

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables that move in the same direction

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables that move in opposite directions

Scatterplot

A type of plot used to display the relationship between two numerical variables, and plots one dot for each observation

Correlational Research

Describes the association between two variables; important to note that a confounding variable (third variable that affects both variables) may also be present

Archival Research

Research that involves searching for and extracting information and evidence from existing records

Case Study

An in-depth study of one person, group, or event

Survey

A data collection tool used to gather information about individuals; usually presented as a list of questions

Observational Research

Research in which the experimenter passively observes the behavior of the participants without any attempt at intervention or manipulation of the behaviors being observed

Descriptive Research

Used by researchers and psychologists to gather information in order to describe the specifics of behaviors, patterns, and other phenomena

Experimenter Bias

Researchers expectations influence the outcome of a study

Participant Bias

Participants involved in research respond in a manner that suggests they are trying to match up with the desired results of the researcher

Placebo effect

When an improvement of symptoms is observed, despite using a nonactive treatment

Double-Blind Experiment

A study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment

Gender Bias

One gender is treated in a more or less favorable way, based on gender stereotypes rather than real differences

Ethnic Gloss

An overgeneralization or simplistic categorical label used to refer to ethnocultural groups where unique cultural and ethnic differences found among group members are ignored

Central Nervous System

Comprised of the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

The portion of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System

Associated with the voluntary control of bodily movements via the use of skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates a variety of bodily process that take place without conscious effort

Sympathetic Nervous System

Involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Functions to conserve the body's natural activity, and relaxes the individual once an emergency has passed

Neuron

A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system

Sensory Neuron

Nerve cells which carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors towards the central nervous system and brain

Motor Neuron

Nerve cells responsible for carrying signals away from the central nervous system towards muscles to cause movement

Interneuron

Any neuron that is neither sensory nor motor, but connects other neurons within the central nervous system

Soma

The cell body where the nucleus lies, which controls the cell and is also where proteins are produced to maintain the functioning of the neuron

Dendrites

The branch-like structures found at the ends of the neuron; the neuron uses these structures to send and receive information from other neurons

Axon

The long extension structure stemming from the soma; works to transmit information it receives down its body to the dendrites at the end of the neuron

Terminal Buttons

Hold synaptic vesicles, which store neurotransmitters; located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons

Synapse

The small gap between two neurons, where nerve impulses are relayed by a neurotransmitter from the axon of a presynaptic (sending) neuron to the dendrite of a postsynaptic (receiving) neuron

Synaptic Cleft

The space between neurons at a nerve synapse across which a nerve impulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter

Myelin Sheath

The protective layer that wraps around the axons of neurons to aid in insulating the neurons, and to increase the number of electrical signals being transferred

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease of the central nervous system characterized by inflammation and multifocal scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission

Ion

An atom or molecule that has acquired an electrical charge by gaining or losing one or more electrons

Ion Channel

A group of proteins forming a channel that spans a cell membrane, allowing the passage of ions between the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm of the cell

Resting Potential

The imbalance of electrical charge that exists between the interior of electrically excitable neurons and their surroundings

Depolarization

A reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface

Action Potential

Occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body

Reuptake

The reabsorption by a neuron of a neurotransmitter following the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse

Threshold

The lowest point at which a particular stimulus will cause a response in an organism

All-or-None Principle

The strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus; essentially, an action potential is either all or nothing, meaning that the neuron will either fire or not fire

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers in the body

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Critical to motor movement, learning, and memory; plays a large part in scheduling REM (dream) sleep

Beta-Endorphins

Responsible for pain control, stress reduction, and pleasureful feelings; often referred to as "natural opiates"

Dopamine

Responsible for motor movement, alertness, good feelings, aggression, thinking, and planning

GABA

Brain's major inhibitory neurotransmitter; responsible for anxiety reduction and insomnia reduction

Glutamate

Brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter; creates links between neurons that form the basis of learning and long-term memory

Norepinephrine

Linked to "fight or flight" response; controls alertness, arousal, heart rate elevation, circulation, respiration, and mood elevation

Serotonin

Responsible for mood regulation, hunger, sleep, sexual desire, decreased anxiety, and problems with anger control

Cerebral Cortex

Collectively responsible for the higher-level processes of the human brain including language, memory, reasoning, thought, learning, decision-making, emotion, intelligence, and personality

Lateralization

The view that different functions are performed by distinct regions of the brain