Nucleic acids and enzymes

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Nucleic Acids

Chemical carriers of a cell's genetic information, including DNA and RNA.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, coded with all the information that determines the nature of the cell.

RNA

Ribonucleic Acid, involved in carrying genetic messages and directing biosynthesis.

Nucleotides

Building blocks of nucleic acids, linked together to form long chains.

Nucleoside

Composed of a sugar and a heterocyclic amine base.

Ribose

The sugar component in RNA.

2-deoxyribose

The sugar in DNA, missing oxygen from C2 of ribose.

Heterocyclic amine bases in DNA

Four different bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine.

Uracil

The pyrimidine base in RNA that replaces thymine.

Replication

The process by which identical copies of DNA are made.

Transcription

The process by which genetic messages are read and carried out of the cell nucleus.

Translation

The process by which genetic messages are decoded to build proteins.

mRNA

Messenger RNA that directs the biosynthesis of peptides and proteins.

Ribosomes

Granular particles in the cytoplasm consisting of 60% rRNA and 40% protein.

Enzymes

Large proteins that act as catalysts for biological reactions.

Substrate

The single compound that an enzyme catalyzes a reaction for.

Activation Energy

The energy barrier that must be overcome for a reaction to occur.

Cofactor

The nonprotein part of an enzyme, which can be an inorganic ion or small organic molecule.

Apoenzyme

The protein part of an enzyme.

Holoenzyme

The combination of the cofactor and apoenzyme.

Trace minerals

Essential minerals like iron, zinc, copper, and manganese required in the diet.

Coenzymes

Organic molecules, such as vitamins, that act as cofactors.

aldaric acid

A type of sugar acid formed from the oxidation of both the aldehyde and alcohol groups of a monosaccharide.

aldonic acid

A sugar acid formed from the oxidation of the aldehyde group of a monosaccharide.

alditol

A sugar alcohol formed by the reduction of the aldehyde or ketone group of a monosaccharide.

glycoside

A compound formed from a monosaccharide and an alcohol, where the anomeric hydroxyl group is replaced by an ether group.

Kiliani-Fischer synthesis

A method for elongating the carbon chain of a monosaccharide by adding a cyanide group and then hydrolyzing it.

neighbouring group effect

A phenomenon where a functional group on a molecule interacts with another part of the same molecule, influencing its reactivity.

reducing sugar

A sugar that can donate electrons to another chemical species, typically due to the presence of a free aldehyde or ketone group.

Wohl degradation

A chemical reaction that allows the conversion of a monosaccharide into a shorter-chain sugar by cleaving the carbon chain.

Glycosides

Products formed from the reaction of a sugar and an alcohol, where the 'ose' suffix of the sugar name is replaced by 'oside'.

Alpha and Beta Methyl-Glucopyranosides

A mixture of products formed from D-glucopyranose and methanol.

Acetal Product

A stable product formed from glycoside formation that is resistant to base and alkaline oxidants.

Mutarotation

The process that glycosides do not undergo because they are not in equilibrium with the open-chain form.

Hydrolysis of Glycosides

The process by which glycosides can be reverted back to their alcohol and sugar components by aqueous acid.

Salicin

One of the oldest herbal remedies known, which served as a model for the synthetic analgesic aspirin.

Anthocyanins

A large class of hydroxylated, aromatic oxonium cations that provide red, purple, and blue colors in flowers, fruits, and some vegetables.

Peonin

An example of anthocyanins that exhibit pronounced pH color dependence.

Cytidine

An amino derivative of ribose that plays important roles in biological phosphorylating agents, coenzymes, and information transport and storage materials.

D-Gluconic Acid

An aldonic acid.

Reducing Sugar

A sugar that can be oxidized by Tollens' or Benedict's reagents, evidenced by the formation of a silver mirror or precipitation of cuprous oxide.

Tollens' Test

A test commonly used to detect aldehyde functions in sugars.

Ketoses

Sugars that can react with Tollens' and Benedict's reagents due to their ability to isomerize to aldoses.

Aldoses

Sugars containing an aldehyde group that are classified as reducing sugars.

Keto-Enol Tautomerism

The process by which fructose can isomerize to glucose and mannose under basic conditions.

Aldaric Acid

The product formed when both ends of an aldose chain are oxidized to carboxylic acids by dilute nitric acid.

Oxidation by Nitric Acid

The process that can oxidize both the aldehyde carbonyl and the -CH2OH group of an aldose to carboxylic acids.

Benedict's Reagent

A reagent used to test for reducing sugars, consisting of Cu2+ and sodium citrate.

Fructose

A ketose that is capable of isomerizing to glucose and mannose and can be classified as a reducing sugar.

Aldehyde Group

A functional group present in aldoses that allows them to be classified as reducing sugars.

Acid-Catalyzed Reaction

A reversible reaction that allows glycosides to be hydrolyzed back to their components.

Aldaric Acid

A derivative formed by converting an aldose, resulting in identical ends of the chain.

Achiral Meso Compound

A compound that exhibits symmetry and is not optically active.

Uronic Acid

A monocarboxylic acid product formed when the -CH2OH group of an aldose is oxidized to a carboxylic acid.

Oxidation

A reaction where monosaccharides can be oxidized to form sugar acids (aldonic acids) or sugar acids (uronic acids).

Reduction

A reaction where monosaccharides can be reduced to form sugar alcohols (alditols).

Condensation Reaction

A reaction where two or more monosaccharides react to form disaccharides, trisaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Hydrolysis

The process of breaking down disaccharides, trisaccharides, and polysaccharides back into monosaccharides in acidic aqueous solutions.

Glycosidic Bond

A bond formed between the anomeric carbon of one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group of another.

Esters

Compounds formed when alcohols in monosaccharides are converted into esters.

Ethers

Compounds formed when alcohols in monosaccharides are converted into ethers.

Acetals

Compounds formed when monosaccharides react with alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst.

Nucleophiles

Species that can react with carbonyls.

Cyclization

The process by which monosaccharides exist in cyclic forms.

Anomers

Two cyclic stereoisomers of monosaccharides, alpha and beta.

Alpha Anomer

The anomer that is trans to carbon 6.

Beta Anomer

The anomer that is cis to carbon 6.

Phosphorylation

A critical metabolic step where alcohol groups are phosphorylated, often using ATP as the phosphate donor.

ATP

A molecule that acts as a phosphate donor in alcohol phosphorylations.

Gamma-Phosphorus

The phosphorus atom in ATP that is attacked by the alcohol oxygen during phosphorylation.

ADP

A molecule that is expelled during the phosphorylation of alcohols.