ART 188 Exam 1

Buon Fresco

a mural painting technique where pigments suspended in water are applied to fresh, wet plaster (intonaco). As the plaster dries, it creates a chemical reaction that integrates the pigments, permanently embedding them into the wall surface for unmatched durability and vibrancy

diptych

an artwork created on two panels that are either hinged together, like a book, or displayed side-by-side, to form a single, cohesive piece

di sotto in sù

an Italian artistic term meaning "from below, upward," describing a painting technique that creates the illusion of figures and objects on a ceiling or high surface appearing to float in space above the viewer, through the use of extreme foreshortening

engraving

the practice of manually incising lines and designs into a hard surface, such as metal or wood, using a pointed tool called a burin or graver, to create either a decorative object or a matrix for a print.

fresco secco

a painting technique that applies pigments mixed with a binder directly onto a dry plaster wall, allowing for more vibrant colors, detailed work, and adjustments after the plaster has hardened.

formal analysis

method of examining a work's visual elements, such as line, color, shape, form, texture, and space, to understand its composition and how these components contribute to its overall effect

foreshortening

an artistic perspective technique used to create an illusion of depth by shortening objects or figures as they recede into the distance or project toward the viewer

grisaille

a painting technique that uses only shades of gray, or a single color, to create the illusion of depth

guild

an organization of artists and craftspeople that provides members with opportunities for promotion, education, exhibition, and community support through shared resources and events

humanism

•Emphasized education and learning, especially about the classical  (ancient Greco-Roman) world.  Showed up in art through the emergence of Classical styles and motifs, interest in mythological subject matter.

•Believed in individual potential and encouraged individual achievement as well as civic responsibility.  Adopted a more secular world view– it was in humankind’s power to shape their own existence.

iconographic analysis

a method in art history for interpreting the meaning of an artwork by studying its subject matter, symbols, and themes within their specific cultural and historical context

iconology

the identification, description, and interpretation of the symbols, themes, and subject matter within artworks to understand their cultural and contextual meanings

intaglio

a printmaking technique and also to objects with depressed designs, where the image is incised or carved into a surface, such as a metal plate or a gemstone

intuitive perspective

uses an artist's eye and observational skills to create a believable sense of depth and three-dimensionality in a drawing, prioritizing the overall impression over perfect, mathematical accuracy

linear perspective

a mathematical system used in art to create the illusion of three-dimensional depth on a flat surface by having parallel lines appear to converge at a single vanishing point on the horizon line

orthogonals

an imaginary line drawn from the corner of an object to a vanishing point on the horizon line, creating the illusion of depth and three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface

predella

the lower, horizontal part of an altarpiece that often contains a series of smaller, narrative paintings or sculptures depicting scenes related to the main subject of the altarpiece above

polyptych

a work of art, such as a painting or photograph, that consists of four or more connected panels

refectory

artwork displayed in a refectory, which is the communal dining hall of a monastery, convent, or college

triptych

a picture or relief carving on three panels, typically hinged together side by side and used as an altarpiece.

trompe l’oeil

an art technique that uses extreme realism to create the illusion of three-dimensional depth on a two-dimensional surface

vanishing point

a specific point on the horizon line where parallel lines in a scene appear to converge, creating the illusion of depth and three-dimensional space within a two-dimensional artwork

woodcut

a relief printing technique where a design is carved into a wooden block with tools like chisels and gouges

memento mori

a genre of art designed to remind viewers of their mortality and the transient nature of life, often using symbolic objects like skulls, hourglasses, and decaying flowers

Cimabue, Virgin and Child Enthroned, c. 1280

12’ 7" × 7’ 4”

artist = Cimabue

italo-Byzantine ztyle.

Shows heavy Byzantine influence: gold background, flatness, frontal and symmetrical composition. But also shows early naturalism

medium = tempera on panel with gold leaf

signifigant in the fact Cimabue begins to break away from the strict hieratic style of Byzantine icons. His figures are slightly more naturalistic — faces show more modeling, and there’s a hint of three-dimensional space.

Giotto, Virgin and Child Enthroned, 1305-1310

0’
8" × 6’ 8 1/4”.

artist = Giotto di Bondone

style = proto-Renaissance / Early Italian Renaissance (solidm weighty, 3D / space is organized an belivable)

medium = Tempera on panel with golf leaf

signifgant in the fact that Giotto gives the Virgin a sense of mass and presence — she occupies space, and her throne looks architectural and believable.The figures are solid and grounded; their gestures and faces are more human and relatable.

Giotto, Scrovegni Chapel, 1305-1306

artist = Giotto di Bondone

style = proto-Renassance and early italian renaissance

medium = fresco (paint applied to wet plaster - buon fresco technique)

signigance = Commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni, a wealthy banker, likely as an act of atonement for sins of usury (charging interest) — this chapel is both a family mausoleum and a statement of piety. The fresco cycle tells the story of the Life of the Virgin and the Life of Christ, from the Annunciation to the Last Judgment, in a clear and emotionally engaging way.

Giotto, Kiss of Judas, 1305-1306

6’ 6 3/4" × 6’ 7/8”

artist = giotto di Bondone

style = proto-Renaissance and early itlaian renaissance

medium = fresco (buon fresco technique)

signifigance = Captures the climactic moment when Judas betrays Christ with a kiss, triggering the Passion.Jesus remains calm and dignified, a visual and emotional anchor amid chaos. Peter with Sword: Represents human reaction to injustice — striking out in anger (foreshadows his later denial).Torches & Spears: Create diagonals that point to Christ, directing viewer’s attention to the betrayal.

Duccio, Maestà Altarpiece (front), 1308-1311

main fron panel 7 × 13’

artist = Duccio di Buoninsegna

style = sienese gothic / proto-renaissance (emphasis on elegance and beauty)

medium = tempera and gold leaf on panel

signifigance = When completed, the altarpiece was carried in procession through Siena, emphasizing the city’s devotion to the Virgin Mary (its patron saint).

Virgin Enthroned: Seated majestically at the center, the Queen of Heaven, surrounded by a heavenly court — symbolizes Siena under her protection.

Christ Child: Blesses the viewer and holds a scroll, symbolizing divine wisdom and salvation.

Ambrogio Lorenzetti, The Effects of Good Government in the City and in the Country, c. 1338-1339

total length about 46’

artist = ambrogio lorenzetti

style = Sienese Gothic / Proto - Renaissance (Combines Gothic elegance with a new interest in naturalism and panoramic spatial representation.)

Medium = Fresco (buon fesco)

Signifigance = One of the first great examples of secular (non-religious) painting in the West. Created as a reminder to Siena’s ruling council of the importance of just, fair governance. Visualizes the consequences of good government — prosperity, safety, harmony — contrasted with bad government on the opposite wall.

Personification of Justice: Shown enthroned, balancing scales — central to good governance.

• City scene

  People dancing in the streets → symbol of civic peace.Thriving markets and construction projects → prosperity and growth.

• Countryside Scene:

  • Fertile fields, peasants tilling land → abundance.

  • Travelers and merchants on the road → safe trade routes.

  • Castles and watchtowers → security under just rule.

Thomas of Witney, Exeter Cathedral, 14^th century

1313-1317

artist = Thomas of Witney

style = English Gothic — Decorated Style

Medium = Stone architecture

signifgnace = Exeter Cathedral is famous for having the longest uninterrupted Gothic rib vault in the world — running the full length of the nave and choir without a break for a central tower crossing. Over 400 sculpted bosses at the rib intersections — depict foliage, animals, biblical scenes, and even humorous grotesques — a “stone Bible” for the faithful. the cathedral becomes a microcosm of heaven on earth.

Vesperbild (Pietà), c. 1330

height 34 1/2”

artist = unknown german gothic sculptor'

style = Late Gothic / German Gothic (Devotional Sculpture)

signifigance = Emphasizes Christ’s physical agony and Mary’s grief, making the Passion deeply personal.

Christ’s Emaciated Body: Shows ribs, wounds, and sagging flesh — stressing the reality of death and sacrifice.

Mary’s Expression: Grief-stricken, sometimes contorted — embodies compassion and shared suffering.

Claus Sluter, Well of Moses, 1395-1406

height of figures about 5’ 8”

artist = claus sluter

style = Late Gothic / Early Northern Renaissance

medium = Limestone with paint (polychromy) and gilding

Signifigance = Functioned as a well (a water source for the monks) but also as a symbolic “fountain of life,” referring to salvation through Christ’s sacrifice.

Six Old Testament Prophets:

• Moses (with horns — a medieval convention from mistranslation of Hebrew),

• David (crowned king),

• Jeremiah,

• Zechariah,

• Daniel,

• Isaiah.
  These prophets hold scrolls or books foretelling the coming of Christ — connecting Old Testament prophecy to New Testament fulfillment.

Paul, Herman, and Jean Limbourg, January, the Duke of Berry at Table, 1411-1416

11 3/8 × 8 1/4”

artists = Paul, Herman, and Jean Limbourg

style = International Gothic Style. Combines elegance, courtly refinement, and exquisite detail.Represents the pinnacle of luxury manuscript illumination commissioned for the French nobility.

medium = Tempera and ink of vellum (illuminated manuscript)

Signifgance =

International Gothic Elegance: Figures are elongated, richly dressed, and placed in lavishly detailed settings.

Political Statement: Displays the Duke’s power, prestige, and generosity — a piece of visual propaganda.

Devotional Context: Despite being secular in subject, it is part of a Book of Hours, reminding the viewer to sanctify time by prayer.

Workshop of the Master of Flémalle, Mérode Altarpiece, c. 1425-1430s

center = 25 ¼ x 24 7/8. Wing 25 3/8 × 10 3/4”

artist = Workshop of the Master of Flémalle

style = Early Netherlandish / Northern Renaissance

medium = oil on panel

signifgance = Places the sacred scene of the Annunciation in a contemporary Flemish home — making the divine story relatable to viewers.

Tiny Christ Child + Cross (flying through window): Symbol of Christ’s conception entering Mary miraculously.

Tools & Mousetraps: Mousetrap = reference to Christ as the “bait” to catch Satan (from St. Augustine’s writings).

Small scale meant for a private home, not a church — encouraging intimate contemplation.

Jan van Eyck, Man in a Red Turban, 1433

13 1/8 × 10 1/4”

artist = Jan Van Eyck

style = Early Northern Renaissance Marks a turning point in portraiture: naturalistic, direct, and psychologically penetrating.

medium = Oil on panel

signifigance = Many scholars believe this is a self-portrait, given the direct gaze and inscription — an assertion of the artist’s status. “As best I can”), Van Eyck’s personal motto, further suggesting this may represent him.

Dramatically wraps the head, showing Van Eyck’s virtuosity with texture and folds; may symbolize intellectual or artistic sophistication.

Inscription on Frame: Reads “Jan van Eyck made me on October 21, 1433” — boldly dating and claiming authorship, reinforcing the new Renaissance idea of artist as intellectual.

Jan van Eyck, Double Portrait of a Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife, 1434

33 × 22 1/2”

artist = Jan Van Eyck

Style = Early Northern Renaissance

medium = oil on panel

signifgance = One of the First Full-Length Double Portraits: Celebrates a marriage or partnership in a private domestic interior — a major innovation. Van Eyck signs above the mirror with “Jan van Eyck was here, 1434” — making himself a witness and elevating the artist’s importance.

disguised symbolism — everyday objects with theological or moral meaning:

• Joined Hands: Gesture of consent — possibly a wedding or betrothal.

• Dog: Fidelity, loyalty, and marital faithfulness.

• Green Dress: Hope, fertility (and shows wealth — green was expensive).

• Fruit on Window Ledge: Wealth and/or fertility, possibly referencing Eden.

• Single Candle in Chandelier: Presence of God (sacred witness) or unity of marriage.

• Shoes Removed: Suggests standing on holy ground (like Moses before God).

• Mirror with Passion Scenes: The tiny convex mirror reflects two additional figures (one could be Van Eyck), and its frame shows scenes from Christ’s Passion — connecting marriage to salvation.

• Rosary Beads: Piety and devotion.

Multiple Interpretations

• Marriage Certificate Image: Many believe this served as a visual record of a marriage ceremony, with Van Eyck as witness.

• Commemorative Portrait: Could memorialize a wife who had died (especially given her pale appearance and the solemn mood).

Jan and Hubert (?) Van Eyck, The Ghent Altarpiece (closed), completed 1432

height 11’ 5”

artist = Jan and possibly HUbert Van Eyck

style = Early Northern Renaissance, Monumental polyptych altarpiece combining Old and New Testament themes, humanist naturalism, and theological complexity.

medium = oil on panel

Symbols & Iconography (Closed View)

• Top Row:

  • Prophets & Sibyls: Foreshadow Christ’s coming.

• Central Register:

  • Annunciation Scene:

    • Mary & Gabriel in a domestic interior — heaven and earth meet.

    • White Lilies: Purity of Mary.

    • Dove of the Holy Spirit: Descent of God at the Incarnation.

    • Microscopic Detail: Everyday objects (carafe, towel) symbolize Mary’s purity and role as Vessel of God.

  • View through Windows: Flemish townscape — brings sacred narrative into the contemporary world.

• Lower Register:

  • Donor Portraits (Jodocus Vijd & Lysbette Borluut): Life-size, kneeling in prayer.

  • Saints John the Baptist & John the Evangelist: Painted in grisaille (monochrome) to look like stone sculptures — emphasize transition between earthly and divine.

    Theological Narrative: Shows anticipation of Christ (closed) vs. fulfillment and salvation (open).

Jan and Hubert (?) Van Eyck, The Ghent Altarpiece (open), completed 1432

11’ 5 3/4” x 15’ 1 1/2”

artist = Jan and Hubert Van Eyck

Style = Early Northern Renaissance, Monumental, highly detailed, and theologically complex.Represents the unity of Heaven and Earth, and the fulfillment of salvation history.

Medium = oil on panel

Significance & Concepts

• Visual Theological Program: When open, it reveals the full drama of redemption — the promise seen in the closed panels is fulfilled here.

• Cosmic Vision of Salvation: Centered on the sacrificial Lamb (symbol of Christ), adored by angels and saints — a vision of the heavenly Jerusalem.

Upper Register (Heavenly Court):

• God the Father/Christ the King (Center): Enthroned, wearing a papal tiara — radiating majesty.

• Mary (Left) & John the Baptist (Right): Flank God in Deësis (intercessory) arrangement.

• Angelic Choirs: Singing and playing instruments — heavenly liturgy.

• Adam & Eve (Far Panels): Life-size, nude — referencing humanity’s fall and the need for redemption.

• Cain & Abel Sacrifice (Roundels): Above Adam & Eve, connecting Old Testament foreshadowing to Christ’s sacrifice.

Lower Register (Central Scene):

• Adoration of the Mystic Lamb:

  • The Lamb stands on an altar, bleeding into a chalice — symbolizing the Eucharist and Christ’s sacrifice.

  • Fountain of Life: Streams toward the viewer — salvation flowing into the world.

  • Groups of Figures: Prophets, apostles, martyrs, confessors, church fathers, and pilgrims approach from all sides — representing the universal Church.

  • Verdant Landscape: Lush, paradise-like — symbol of divine order restored.

Rogier van der Weyden, Deposition, before 1443, possibly c. 1435-1438

7’ 2 5/8 × 8’ 7 1/8”

artist = Rogier Van Der Weyden

style = Early Renaissance, Combines Van Eyck–influenced naturalism with heightened drama and emotional intensity.

Medium = oil on panel

Dramatic Pathos: One of the most emotionally charged images of the Passion, meant to evoke deep compassion and devotional empathy (key concept: imitatio Christi — “imitating Christ”).

Christ’s Body: Carefully lowered from the cross, body forming a graceful curve — almost echoes Mary’s fainting pose, visually linking mother and son.

Mary’s Swoon: Her collapse mirrors Christ’s form — emphasizing her suffering and shared passion (co-redemptrix theme).

Encouraged viewers to emotionally participate in Christ’s Passion — a key goal of late medieval devotion.

Martin Schongauer, Demons Tormenting St. Anthony, c. 1480-1490

12 ¼ x 9”

artist = Martin Schongauer

style = Late Gothic / Early Northern Renaissance, Fuses late medieval interest in spiritual struggle with early Renaissance interest in naturalistic detail.

medium = Engrvaing (intaglio print on paper) (Copperplate engraving, which allows fine, controlled lines and reproducibility.)

Print Revolution: Schongauer was one of the first major masters of engraving, making high-quality art accessible to wider audiences.

St. Anthony: Calm and composed despite being swarmed by grotesque demons — symbol of spiritual fortitude.

Anthony’s serenity vs. demons’ wildness communicates Christian victory over sin through faith.

Multiple Interpretations

• Spiritual Allegory: Victory of Christian steadfastness over temptation.

• Memento Mori: Reminder of the constant spiritual struggle faced by believers.

Brunelleschi, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401-1402

21 × 17 ½ “

artist = Filippo Brunelleschi

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Proto-Renaissance) Transitional work that still shows Gothic elements but introduces Renaissance interest in drama, naturalism, and classical form.

Medium = Gilded bronze relief panel

This contest is often seen as a catalyst for the Early Renaissance, bringing together young artists who would shape the era (Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello).

• Abraham & Isaac: Central Old Testament story — Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac as a test of faith.

• Angel: Sweeps in dramatically from the side to stop Abraham, capturing the crucial moment.

• Ram: Provided by God as a substitute sacrifice — symbol of salvation.

Dynamic & Violent: Abraham’s arm is raised high, Isaac’s body twists — sense of imminent action.

Competition Result: Brunelleschi’s panel was considered too dramatic and violent compared to Ghiberti’s more graceful, unified solution — Ghiberti won the commission.

Ghiberti, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401-1402

21 × 17 ½ “

Artist = Lorenzo Ghiberti

Style = Early Italian Renaissance (Proto-Renaissance) More graceful, elegant, and unified than Brunelleschi’s version — foreshadowing the classical harmony of the Renaissance.

Medium = Gilded Bronze Relief Panel

• Winning Competition Entry: Ghiberti’s panel was praised for its elegant composition, technical efficiency, and unified space.

• Technical Brilliance: Cast largely in one piece (except Isaac) — lighter, cheaper, and easier to install, which appealed to the wool guild patrons funding the doors.

• Abraham & Isaac: Calm, balanced composition — Abraham’s hand gently grips Isaac’s head, less violent than Brunelleschi’s version.

• Angel: Gracefully enters from the side, stopping the sacrifice.

• Ram: Provided as a substitute, symbolizing God’s mercy.

Ghiberti’s serenity and elegance won over the guild because it was more harmonious and “appropriate” for a sacred door panel.

Brunelleschi, Dome of Florence Cathedral, 1420-1436

latern completed 1471

artist = Filippo Brunelleschi

Style = Early Italian Renaissance Architecture, Marks a turning point from Gothic verticality toward Renaissance rationality, engineering ingenuity, and classical inspiration.

Medium = brick and stone construction. innovative use of herringbone brick pattern and wooden/stone chains to support the dome

Engineering Marvel: First large-scale dome built without a traditional wooden centering — solved the problem of spanning the massive octagonal crossing of Florence Cathedral.

Symbol of Florence: Dome represents civic pride, Florence’s wealth, and the city’s leadership in art and technology.

Ribs and Chains: 24 vertical ribs (hidden in the inner dome) act like ribs of a skeleton; horizontal iron and wooden chains prevent outward thrust.

Brunelleschi (continued by Michelozzo di Bartolomeo), Interior of the Church of San Lorenzo, c. 1421-1470

architects = filippo Brunelleschi and Michelozzo di Bartolomeo

style = Early Italian Renaissance Architecture, Emphasizes harmony, proportion, and classical forms inspired by Roman architecture.

Medium = stone, masonary, and plastered surfaces

Patronage: Commissioned by the Medici family — one of the first examples of Renaissance private civic/religious patronage shaping urban architecture.

Structural Clarity: Use of modular bays, Corinthian columns, and arches creates a readable, ordered interior space.

• Humanist Space: Interior embodies Renaissance humanist ideals — order, rationality, and proportion reflect divine harmony.

• Medici Prestige: San Lorenzo interior demonstrates the Medici family’s cultural leadership and taste.

• Transition from Gothic: Removes vertical emphasis and ornamentation typical of Gothic churches, emphasizing horizontal clarity and geometric order.

Donatello, David, c. 1446-1460 (?)

height 5’ 2 1/4”

artist = donatello

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Florentine Renaissance Sculpture) First known free-standing nude bronze statue since antiquity — combines classical influence with humanist ideals.

medium = bronze

• First Free-Standing Nude Since Antiquity: Marks a rebirth of classical forms in Renaissance art.

• Florentine Civic Symbolism: David represents Florence’s triumph over larger foes, symbolizing civic virtue and courage.

• Humanist Focus: Emphasizes naturalism, individual expression, and the beauty of the human body.

• Innovative Composition: Contrapposto pose and sensuous realism demonstrate mastery of anatomy and movement.

• David: Young hero, standing over Goliath’s severed head — a symbol of victory through faith and intelligence over brute force.

• Goliath’s Head: Represents tyranny or larger enemies of Florence; David’s victory implies divine favor.

• Nudity: Evokes classical ideals of heroism, human beauty, and moral virtue; also emphasizes vulnerability and divine support.

• Hat and Boots: David wears only a hat and boots — a playful, youthful, almost sensual touch that humanizes him.

Ghiberti, Gates of Paradise, Florence Baptistery, 1425-1452

height 15”

artist = Lorenzo Ghiberti

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Florence)

• Marks a high point of Renaissance relief sculpture: naturalism, perspective, classical influence, and narrative clarity.

medium = gilded bronze relief panels (Ten large panels depicting scenes from the Old Testament.)

Mastery of Perspective: Uses linear perspective to create deep spatial illusion — figures recede convincingly into architectural spaces.

• Narrative Clarity: Each panel tells a biblical story in a continuous, readable composition.

• Humanist Influence: Figures display individualized anatomy, naturalistic drapery, and emotional expression.

Ten Old Testament Stories:

1. Adam and Eve

2. Cain and Abel

3. Noah

4. Abraham and Isaac

5. Jacob and Esau

6. Joseph

7. Moses

8. Joshua

9. David

10. Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

    Biblical Narrative: Reinforces Christian teachings and moral lessons through accessible visual storytelling.

    Humanist Celebration: Figures and settings reflect interest in human emotion, classical forms, and naturalism.

    Civic & Religious Pride: Doors symbolize Florence’s devotion, artistic leadership, and wealth.

Early Renaissance Relief Sculpture:

• Use of linear perspective to convey depth.

• Figures modeled in highly naturalistic anatomy and drapery.

• Balanced compositions — harmonious and readable.

• Integration of classical motifs (columns, arches) into narrative panels.

Ghiberti, Jacob and Esau, c. 1435

31 1/4”

artist = lorenzo ghiberti

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Florence) Part of the Gates of Paradise (Florence Baptistery East Doors). Demonstrates Renaissance ideals of perspective, naturalism, and classical composition.

Medium = Gilded Bronze relief

• Narrative Clarity: Depicts the biblical story of Jacob deceiving Isaac to receive the blessing intended for Esau.

• Use of Linear Perspective: Interior architecture recedes convincingly, creating depth and guiding the viewer’s eye through the narrative.

• Humanist Influence: Figures exhibit individualized faces, expressive gestures, and realistic interaction — emphasizing human behavior and emotion.

• Artistic Showcase: Demonstrates Ghiberti’s mastery of relief depth, perspective, and narrative complexity in a compact space.

Masaccio, Trinity with the Virgin, St. John the Evangelist, and Donors, c. 1425-1427/1428

21 × 10’5”

artist = Masaccio

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Florence). One of the first uses of linear perspective in monumental fresco painting. Demonstrates humanist interest in space, proportion, and the viewer’s experience.

Medium = fresco

Pioneering Use of Linear Perspective: Masaccio uses mathematical perspective to create the illusion of a deep, three-dimensional chapel interior within a flat wall.

Humanist Realism: Figures have weight, volume, and occupy believable space — a shift from Gothic flatness and stylization.

Holy Trinity:

• God the Father supports the crucified Christ, with the Holy Spirit as a dove between them.

• Positioned at the vanishing point of the linear perspective, enhancing spiritual and spatial focus.

• Virgin Mary and St. John the Evangelist: Flank the cross — traditional intercessors, guiding the viewer’s devotion.

Memento Mori: Skeleton at the base inscribed with “I once was what you are, and what I am you also will be” — reminder of death and salvation.

Early Renaissance Naturalism:

• Figures have mass, volume, and realistic anatomy.

• Drapery follows the form of the body and weight.

Masaccio, The Tribute Money, c. 1427

8’ 1” x 19” 7”

artist = masaccio

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Florence) Marks a major development in linear perspective, naturalism, and narrative clarity in painting.

medium = fresco

• Continuous Narrative: Depicts multiple moments of the biblical story (Matthew 17:24–27) in a single scene — Jesus instructing Peter, Peter paying the tax, Peter catching the fish.

• Naturalism & Human Interaction: Figures are rendered with volume, weight, and realistic gestures, emphasizing human emotion and behavior.

• Light and Shadow (Chiaroscuro): Masaccio uses light to model forms and create three-dimensionality.

Religious/Moral: Illustrates obedience to secular authority while honoring divine instruction.

Andrea del Castagno, The Last Supper, 1447

16 × 32’

artist = Andrea del Castagno

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Florence)

medium fresco

• Christ: Central, calm figure — vanishing point located behind his head.

• Apostles: Expressively reacting to Christ’s announcement of betrayal; gestures and facial expressions convey narrative drama.

• Table & Objects: Bread and wine emphasize the Eucharist — the sacramental focus of the Last Supper.

• Religious/Devotional: Illustrates Christ’s final meal with his apostles, central to Christian ritual (Eucharist).

Piero della Francesca, Battista Sforza and Federico da Montefeltro, c. 1474

18 ½ x 13”

artist = Piero della Francesca

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Urbino, Italy)

• Exemplifies profile portraiture, geometric clarity, and humanist ideals of representation.

medium = tempera on panel

• Commemorative Portraits: Created to celebrate Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino, and his wife Battista Sforza. Likely displayed together as a diptych for public or private view.

• Humanist Ideals: Emphasizes reason, order, and virtue; captures both civic pride and individual character.

• Landscape Integration: Back panels (for the couple) show idealized, aerial-view landscapes — reflecting Renaissance interest in perspective and spatial depth.rofile Portraits:

  • Both figures are shown in strict profile, a style inherited from classical coins and medals.

  • Allows clear depiction of facial features, attire, and social status.

• Bust-Length Format: Figures isolated from foreground, emphasizing dignity and nobility.

• Back Panels (Landscapes):

  • Federico and Battista are depicted in triumphal chariot scenes, symbolizing civic and moral virtue.

  • Landscapes rendered with aerial perspective, showing rolling hills and rivers receding into the distance.

• Symbolism:

  • Battista’s pale complexion reflects idealized beauty and virtue.

  • Federico’s distinctive profile (including missing eye) emphasizes wisdom, experience, and military prowess.

Dynastic Pride: Celebrates the ruling couple’s status, virtues, and legacy.

• Early Renaissance Naturalism:

  • Precise modeling of faces and hands using light and shadow.

  • Profile format emphasizes linear clarity and geometry.

• Perspective & Landscape: Aerial perspective creates a believable spatial depth in back panels.

Andrea Mantegna, Two Views of the Camera Picta, 1465-1474

oculus 8’ 9” Room 26’ 6” sqaure

artist = Andrea Mantegna

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Mantua, Italy)

• Highlights illusionism, classical influence, and humanist principles.

• A landmark in trompe-l’oeil and ceiling perspective.

medium = fresco

• Court Commission: Painted for Ludovico Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua — intended as a private room demonstrating wealth, sophistication, and cultural knowledge.

• Illusionistic Perspective: Mantegna uses foreshortening and di sotto in sù (“seen from below”) to make figures and architectural elements appear to recede dramatically into space.

• Early Renaissance Illusionism:

  • Foreshortening and di sotto in sù create dramatic spatial effects.

  • Figures and architectural elements convincingly occupy three-dimensional space.

Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus, c. 1484-1486

5’ 8 7/8” x 9’ 1 7/8”

artist = Sandro Botticelli

style = Early Italian Renaissance (Florence, Humanist & Medici Patronage)

• Exemplifies mythological subject matter, linear elegance, and humanist ideals.

medium = Tempera on canvas

Humanist Influence: Inspired by classical literature (especially Ovid’s Metamorphoses) and Neoplatonic philosophy.

• Medici Patronage: Likely commissioned by Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, reflecting Florentine interest in classical mythology and beauty.

• Idealized Beauty: Venus embodies spiritual and physical perfection — the merging of classical and Renaissance ideals.

• Venus: Central figure, nude, standing on a shell — classical motif symbolizing birth from sea foam.

• Zephyr and Aura: Wind gods blowing Venus toward the shore — represent divine forces and natural elements.

• Hora of Spring: Woman on the right, ready to clothe Venus, symbolizes seasonal fertility and humanist harmony.

• Symbolism:

  • Shell: Birth, fertility, and divine creation.

  • Roses: Symbolize love, beauty, and divine grace.

  • Nudity: Represents idealized beauty, spiritual and physical perfection.

  • Neoplatonic Reading: Venus as the embodiment of divine love and spiritual beauty, rising from earthly and natural elements.

  • Allegorical: Celebration of humanist ideals — beauty, harmony, and moral virtue.

  • Decorative & Civic Pride: Demonstrates Florentine mastery of painting, intellectual sophistication, and Medici cultural dominance.

chiaroscuro

an effect of contrasted light and shadow created by light falling unevenly or from a particular direction on something