Cognition: Understanding Perception, Memory, and Intelligence

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts in Cognition, Perception, Memory, and Intelligence based on lecture notes.

Perception

The process of interpreting and organizing sensory information received from the environment.

Bottom-Up Processing

A cognitive process where perception is built from raw sensory data without relying heavily on prior knowledge.

Top-Down Processing

A cognitive process where the brain uses prior knowledge and expectations to interpret new sensory information.

Schema

A cognitive framework that helps individuals organize and interpret information based on past experiences.

Perceptual Sets

A mental predisposition to perceive stimuli in a particular way based on past experiences.

Gestalt Psychology

A school of thought emphasizing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts in shaping perception.

Closure

A Gestalt principle where the brain perceives incomplete figures as complete by filling in missing information.

Figure and Ground

The visual perception concept of distinguishing a main object from its surrounding background.

Proximity

The tendency to perceive objects that are physically close together as belonging to the same group.

Similarity

A Gestalt principle stating that objects with similar qualities are perceived as a group.

Attention

The cognitive process of selectively focusing on specific stimuli in the environment.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on a single conversation while filtering out background noise.

Inattentional Blindness

The phenomenon where someone fails to perceive a visible object because their attention is focused elsewhere.

Change Blindness

The phenomenon of failing to notice a significant change in a visual scene.

Binocular Depth Cues

Visual cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive depth.

Retinal Disparity

The slight difference in images received by each eye used to perceive depth.

Convergence

The inward movement of both eyes when focusing on a nearby object, aiding in depth perception.

Monocular Depth Cues

Visual cues allowing depth perception using only one eye.

Relative Clarity

The perceptual cue where sharper, clearer objects are perceived as closer.

Relative Size

A monocular depth cue where smaller objects are perceived as farther away.

Texture Gradient

A visual cue where texture appears denser with less detail as objects get farther away.

Linear Perspective

A monocular depth cue where parallel lines converge in the distance, creating depth.

Interposition

A monocular depth cue where one object overlaps another, indicating perceived distance.

Perceptual Constancy

The tendency to perceive familiar objects as having stable attributes despite sensory changes.

Concepts

Fundamental ideas or abstract principles that help explain human behavior and mental processes.

Prototypes

Typical examples of a category that help in classifying and categorizing new information.

Assimilation

The process of integrating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of altering one's schemas to incorporate new experiences.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure guaranteeing a correct solution to a problem.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that allows for quick judgments and decisions based on past experiences.

Representativeness Heuristic

Estimating probabilities based on how similar something is to a known situation.

Availability Heuristic

Making decisions based on immediate examples that come to mind.

Mental Sets

The tendency to persist with problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past.

Priming

Exposure to a stimulus that influences how one perceives or responds to a subsequent stimulus.

Framing

The presentation of information that influences people's decisions and judgments.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that past random events influence future outcomes in random processes.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing to invest in a decision based on past investments despite negative outcomes.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, organize, and regulate behavior.

Creativity

The ability to generate novel and useful ideas or solutions.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple creative solutions to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Analyzing information to arrive at a single correct solution to a problem.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias where a person is unable to think of an object beyond its typical use.

Memory

The mental process of acquiring, storing, and retrieving information.

Encoding

The process of taking in new information and converting it for storage.

Storage

The retention of encoded information in the brain for later retrieval.

Retrieval

Accessing and recalling stored information from memory.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recollection of facts and events.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and specific events.

Semantic Memory

General knowledge about the world, including facts and concepts.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory that influences behavior without conscious recollection.

Procedural Memory

Type of implicit memory related to skills and how to perform tasks.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a planned action at a future time.

Long-Term Potentiation

The strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons as a result of repeated stimulation.

Working Memory Model

A cognitive theory describing how the brain temporarily holds and manipulates information.

Working Memory

A cognitive system that temporarily stores and actively manipulates information.

Central Executive

The component of working memory that directs attention and manages information flow.

Phonological Loop

The component of working memory responsible for storing and rehearsing auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The working memory component that processes visual and spatial information.

Long-Term Memory

The memory stage where information is stored for an extended period.

Multi-Store Model

A theory stating memory involves three distinct stores: sensory, short-term, and long-term.

Sensory Memory

The brief initial stage of memory where sensory information is held for a fraction of a second.

Iconic Memory

Brief storage of visual information for a fraction of a second after stimulus removal.

Echoic Memory

Brief storage of auditory information lasting only a few seconds after sound stops.

Short-term Memory

The capacity to hold a small amount of information actively for a short time.

Automatic Processing

Effortless processing of information typically related to well-learned skills.

Effortful Processing

The active mental process of encoding information requiring conscious effort.

Levels of Processing Model

The idea that deeper processing leads to better memory retention.

Structural Encoding

Memory processing based on physical characteristics or appearance.

Phonemic Encoding

Memory encoding based on the sounds of words.

Semantic Encoding

Memory encoding focused on the meaning of information.

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques that use associations to aid memory recall.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique associating information with specific locations.

Chunking

Dividing large pieces of information into smaller, manageable units for easier recall.

Categories

A cognitive strategy organizing information into broader groups for easier recall.

Hierarchies

Organizing information into ranked categories for effective memory storage.

Spacing Effect

Improved retention of information when studied over time with intervals.

Massed Practice

Studying a large amount of information in a short concentrated session.

Distributed Practice

Studying information in short sessions spread across longer periods.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of the first items presented in a sequence.

Recency Effect

Better recall of the most recent items presented.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeatedly practicing information in its original form for short-term retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information with existing knowledge to enhance retention.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life experiences forming a narrative of one's life.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall events before a traumatic brain injury.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after a traumatic event.

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurocognitive disorder that leads to cognitive decline.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability of adults to recall personal memories from early childhood.

Recall

The act of retrieving memories from long-term storage.

Recognition

Identifying something as familiar when encountered again.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that assist in accessing stored memories.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall of information when the retrieval context matches the learning context.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recalling memories that align with current emotional states.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall of information when in the same physiological state as when encoded.

Testing Effect

The phenomenon where actively retrieving information improves retention.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Forgetting Curve

Graphical representation showing the rate at which information is lost over time.

Encoding Failure

Failure to transfer information to long-term storage due to lack of attention.

Proactive Interference

When old memories hinder the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

When new learning makes it difficult to recall old information.