anatomy and physiology

Discuss the significance of compact bone. 

Compact bone is a dense and strong type of bone that forms the outer layer of bones, providing structural support and protection. It contains Haversian systems, which are crucial for the supply of nutrients and removal of waste, helping maintain bone health and integrity.

How do bones grow in length? 

Bones grow in length through a process called endochondral ossification, where cartilage is gradually replaced by bone tissue at the growth plates (epiphyseal plates). This process allows for the elongation of long bones during childhood and adolescence.

How do bones grow in width? 

Bones grow in width through a process called appositional growth, where new bone tissue is added to the outer surface, while bone resorption occurs on the inner surface. This process increases bone diameter and enhances overall bone strength.

Which cells become active in bone when blood calcium levels drop? 

When blood calcium levels drop, osteoclasts become active to break down bone tissue, releasing calcium into the bloodstream to restore normal calcium levels.

How do blood vessels enter into bone? 

Blood vessels enter bone through small openings called nutrient foramina, which lead into the Haversian canals that contain the blood vessels and nerves supplying the bone.

What type of cartilage is articular cartilage? 

Articular cartilage is hyaline cartilage that covers the ends of bones in synovial joints. It provides a smooth, lubricated surface for joint movement and helps absorb shock.

Where are red and yellow bone marrow found in bone? 

Red and yellow bone marrow are found in the medullary cavity of long bones and within the spaces of spongy bone. Red marrow is responsible for blood cell production, while yellow marrow stores fat.

Name all basic bones of the skeleton. 

The basic bones of the skeleton include the skull, vertebral column, rib cage, and the limbs, which consist of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, and various carpal and tarsal bones.

Which bones are part of the axial skeleton? 

The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. It supports the head and trunk and protects the brain and spinal cord.

Which bones are part of the appendicular skeleton? 

The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs, such as the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula, as well as the pelvic girdle and shoulder girdle.

What bones articulate to form the shoulder? 

The shoulder joint is formed by the articulation of the humerus, scapula, and clavicle, allowing for a wide range of motion.

What bones articulate to form the elbow? 

The elbow joint is formed by the articulation of the humerus, radius, and ulna, enabling flexion and extension of the forearm.

What bone articulates to form the knee? 

The knee joint is formed by the articulation of the femur, tibia, and patella, allowing for flexion and extension of the leg.

What bones articulate to form the ankle? 

The ankle joint is formed by the articulation of the tibia, fibula, and talus, facilitating movement and support of the foot.

Which bones have perinasal sinuses? 

The perinasal sinuses are found in the frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones, which aid in resonance of voice and lighten the skull.

Explain ball and socket joint and give examples of it. 

A ball and socket joint is a type of synovial joint where a spherical head of one bone fits into a cup-like socket of another bone, allowing for a wide range of motion in multiple directions. Examples include the shoulder joint and hip joint.

Explain hinge joints and give examples of it. 

A hinge joint is a type of synovial joint that permits motion in one plane, similar to the way a door opens and closes. Examples include the elbow joint and knee joint.

Explain pivot joints and give some examples of them. 

A pivot joint is a type of synovial joint that allows for rotational movement around a single axis, similar to the turning of a doorknob. Examples include the joints between the first and second cervical vertebrae (atlas and axis) and the radioulnar joint.

Explain synovial joints and give some examples of them. 

Synovial joints are a type of joint characterized by a fluid-filled joint cavity that allows for smooth movement between the articulating bones. Examples include hinge joints, ball and socket joints, and pivot joints.

Explain synarthrotic joints and give some examples of them. 

Synarthrotic joints are types of joints that are immovable, offering stability and support between bones. Examples include sutures in the skull and the junctions between teeth and their sockets.

expalin amiphiarthrotic joint and give some examples of them

Amphiarthrotic joints are types of joints that allow for limited movement between bones, providing both flexibility and stability. Examples include the pubic symphysis and intervertebral joints.

explain flexion

Flexion is a movement that decreases the angle between two body parts, typically occurring at joints. Common examples include bending the elbow or the knee.

explain extension

Extension is a movement that increases the angle between two body parts, often occurring at joints. It is the opposite of flexion, such as straightening the elbow or knee.

explain abduction

Abduction is a movement that increases the distance between a body part and the midline of the body. This occurs in various joints, such as moving the arms or legs away from the torso. ex

explain adduction

Adduction is a movement that decreases the distance between a body part and the midline of the body, often involving the arms or legs moving toward the torso.

explain rotation

Rotation is a movement around an axis, where a body part turns on its own axis. This can involve joints such as the neck or shoulder, allowing for circular motion.

explain plantar flexion

Plantar flexion is a movement that increases the angle between the foot and the lower leg, typically involving pointing the toes downward. This motion is commonly seen in activities like standing on tiptoes or pressing the gas pedal.

explain dorsiflexion

Dorsiflexion is a movement that decreases the angle between the foot and the lower leg, typically involving lifting the toes upward towards the shin. This motion is commonly used in walking and running.

explain pronation

Pronation is a rotational movement of the forearm or foot that results in the inward roll or flattening of the foot arch, and in the case of the forearm, it turns the palm facing downwards.

explain supination

Supination is a rotational movement of the forearm or foot that results in the outward roll of the foot arch, and in the case of the forearm, it turns the palm facing upwards.

concerning the muscle fiber, what are striations?

Striations are the alternating light and dark bands found in skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers, indicative of the organized arrangement of actin and myosin filaments responsible for muscle contraction.

explain sarcomere

A sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit of striated muscle tissue, composed of organized actin and myosin filaments that facilitate muscle contraction.

explain a-band

The A-band is a dark region in a sarcomere that contains the full length of thick filaments (myosin) and overlapping thin filaments (actin). It is crucial for the muscle contraction process.

explain i-band

The I-band is a light region in a sarcomere that contains only thin filaments (actin) and is located on either side of the A-band. It shortens during muscle contraction.

explain z-disc

The Z-disc is a structural feature of a sarcomere that anchors the thin filaments (actin) and defines the boundaries between adjacent sarcomeres, playing a key role in muscle contraction.

explain myosin

Myosin is a type of motor protein that interacts with actin filaments to facilitate muscle contraction. It forms thick filaments in muscle fibers and plays a crucial role in the sliding filament theory.

explain actin

Actin is a globular protein that polymerizes to form long, thin filaments, which are essential components of muscle fibers. These filaments interact with myosin during muscle contraction, providing the structural framework for movement.

explain myofilament

Myofilaments are the fundamental units of muscle tissue, consisting of thick filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin) that interact during muscle contraction to produce force and movement.

explain the role of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction

The sarcoplasmic reticulum is an organelle that stores calcium ions, which are released during muscle contraction to initiate the interaction between actin and myosin filaments. This release triggers the process of muscle contraction, allowing for coordinated movement.

explain the role of acetylcholine in muscle contraction

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that is released at the neuromuscular junction, where it binds to receptors on the muscle membrane, resulting in depolarization and the initiation of muscle contraction.

explain the role of myosin in muscle contraction

Myosin is a motor protein that binds to actin filaments during muscle contraction. It uses ATP to power its movement, pulling actin filaments together to generate muscle shortening and force.

specifically, what does the myosin cross bridge do in muscle contraction?

The myosin cross bridge attaches to actin filaments and pulls them toward the center of the sarcomere, utilizing energy from ATP to facilitate muscle contraction and shortening.

explain role of actin in muscle contraction

Actin is a protein that forms thin filaments in muscle fibers. During contraction, myosin cross bridges attach to actin, facilitating the sliding filament mechanism that results in muscle shortening.

explain the role of troponin-tropomyosin complex in muscle contraction

The troponin-tropomyosin complex regulates muscle contraction by blocking myosin binding sites on actin filaments when muscle fibers are in a relaxed state. Upon calcium ion release, troponin undergoes a conformational change, allowing tropomyosin to shift and expose these binding sites, enabling myosin to attach and initiate contraction.

explain the role in calcium in muscle contraction

Calcium ions play a crucial role in muscle contraction by binding to troponin, which leads to a conformational change in the troponin-tropomyosin complex. This change uncovers the myosin binding sites on actin filaments, allowing myosin to attach and initiate contraction.

Explain the role of ATP in muscle contraction. 

ATP provides the energy necessary for myosin cross-bridges to attach to and detach from actin filaments during contraction. It also assists in the re-cocking of myosin heads, allowing for repeated cycles of muscle shortening.

Explain the role of calcium pump in muscle contraction. 

The calcium pump is crucial for muscle relaxation after contraction, as it actively transports calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This reduction in calcium concentration causes troponin to return to its original shape, which allows tropomyosin to cover myosin binding sites on actin, thereby stopping the contraction.

explain the role of acetylcholinersterase in muscle contraction

Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft, terminating the signal for muscle contraction. This action prevents continuous stimulation of the muscle fibers, allowing them to relax after contraction.

Explain the role of neuromuscular junction in muscle contraction. 

The neuromuscular junction is the synapse where a motor neuron communicates with a muscle fiber, releasing acetylcholine. This neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the muscle cell membrane, triggering an action potential that initiates muscle contraction.

Explain the role of Na+/K+ pump in muscle contraction. 

The Na+/K+ pump helps maintain the electrochemical gradient across the muscle cell membrane by transporting sodium out of and potassium into the cell. This gradient is essential for generating action potentials, which trigger muscle contractions.

describe the events that occur as an action potential travels across a synapse. explain the role of neurtransmitter

An action potential travels along the motor neuron to the axon terminal, where it causes voltage-gated calcium channels to open. The influx of calcium ions prompts the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synaptic cleft, which then binds to receptors on the muscle fiber and leads to muscle contraction.

describe the events that occur as an action potential travels across a synapse. explain the role of neurtransmitter

An action potential travels along the neuron, causing calcium channels to open at the axon terminal. This allows calcium ions to enter, prompting the release of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft, which then bind to receptors and facilitate communication with the muscle fiber.

Describe the events that occur as an action potential travels across a synapse. Explain the role of each of the following: action potential, neurotransmitter, receptor, calcium, synaptic cleft

An action potential travels along the neuron to the axon terminal, where it triggers the opening of calcium channels. Calcium ions enter the terminal, causing neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft, which binds to receptors on the muscle fiber and initiates contraction.

Where does the energy (ATP) for muscle contraction come from? 

The energy for muscle contraction comes primarily from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is produced mainly through cellular respiration processes such as aerobic metabolism and anaerobic glycolysis in muscle cells.

how does phosphocreatine generate ATP? what is the overall reaction?

Phosphocreatine generates ATP by donating a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme creatine kinase. The overall reaction is: Phosphocreatine + ADP ↔ Creatine + ATP.

What is formed specifically during the anaerobic breakdown of glucose? 

What is formed specifically during the aerobic breakdown of glucose? 

What is the process of aerobic breakdown of glucose called? 

where does the aerobic breakdown of glucose occur in the cell

The aerobic breakdown of glucose occurs primarily in the mitochondria of the cell.

describe a twitch, regarding muscle physiology

A twitch is a rapid, brief contraction of a muscle fiber resulting from a single stimulus. It consists of a latent period, contraction phase, and relaxation phase.

regarding muscle physiology, describe a motor unit

A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates, functioning together to facilitate movement.

regarding muscle physiology, describe isometric contraction

An isometric contraction is a type of muscle contraction where the muscle fibers generate tension without changing length, maintaining posture or stabilizing joints.

regarding muscle physiology, describe flaccid paralysis

Flaccid paralysis is a condition characterized by weakness or paralysis of muscles due to the failure of nerve signals, leading to decreased muscle tone and loss of reflexes. This can result from damage to the motor neuron or spinal cord.

regarding muscle physiology, describe isotonic contraction

An isotonic contraction is a type of muscle contraction where the muscle fibers change length while generating tension, facilitating movement of body parts.

regarding muscle physiology, describe tetanus

Tetanus is a sustained muscle contraction resulting from rapid stimulation of motor neurons, leading to a prolonged and forceful contraction of the muscle without rest between stimuli.

regarding muscle physiology, describe atrophy

Atrophy is the decrease in muscle mass and strength resulting from disuse, denervation, or aging, causing a reduction in muscle fiber size and overall muscle function. refa

regarding muscle physiology, describe hypertrophy

Hypertrophy is the increase in muscle mass and strength resulting from resistance training or increased workload, leading to an enlargement of muscle fibers.

When does flaccid paralysis occur? Where is the damage? 

Flaccid paralysis occurs when there is damage to the lower motor neurons or the neuromuscular junction, resulting in a loss of muscle tone and voluntary movement.

regarding muscle physiology, describe spastic paralysis

Spastic paralysis is characterized by increased muscle tone and involuntary muscle contractions, resulting from damage to the upper motor neurons in the brain or spinal cord.

When does spastic paralysis occur? Where is the damage? 

Spastic paralysis occurs when there is damage to the upper motor neurons, leading to increased muscle tone and exaggerated reflexes.

discuss the location and function of the triceps brachii

The triceps brachii is located on the posterior compartment of the upper arm. Its primary function is to extend the elbow joint.

Discuss the location and function of the biceps brachii. 

The biceps brachii is located on the anterior compartment of the upper arm. Its primary function is to flex the elbow joint and supinate the forearm.

Discuss the location and function of the deltoid

The deltoid is located on the shoulder, covering the shoulder joint. Its primary function is to abduct the arm and assist in flexion and extension of the shoulder.

discuss the locatoin and function of the pectoralis major

The pectoralis major is located in the anterior chest wall. Its primary function is to adduct and medially rotate the arm, as well as assist in shoulder flexion.

Discuss the location and function of the latissimus dorsi. 

The latissimus dorsi is located in the lower back, extending to the sides. Its primary function is to adduct, extend, and medially rotate the arm.

Discuss the location and function of gastrocnemius. 

The gastrocnemius is located in the posterior compartment of the lower leg, forming the calf. Its primary function is to plantarflex the ankle and flex the knee.

discuss the location and function of gluteus maximus

The gluteus maximus is located in the posterior pelvic region, forming a major part of the buttock. Its primary function is to extend and laterally rotate the hip joint.

discuss the location and function of iliopsoas

The iliopsoas is located in the anterior compartment of the hip, composed of the psoas major and iliacus muscles. Its primary function is to flex the hip joint and stabilize the pelvis.

discuss the location and function of the rectus abdominis

The rectus abdominis is located in the anterior abdominal wall, extending from the pubic symphysis to the xiphoid process. Its primary function is to flex the lumbar spine and compress the abdominal contents.

discuss the location and function of the external oblique

The external oblique is located on the lateral sides of the abdomen, extending from the lower ribs to the pelvis. Its primary function is to flex and rotate the trunk, as well as to help with the compression of abdominal contents.

discuss the location and function of the internal oblique

The internal oblique is located beneath the external oblique on the lateral abdomen, extending from the lower ribs to the pelvis. Its primary function is to flex and rotate the trunk, and it assists in compressing the abdominal contents.

discuss the location (origin and insertion) and function of the traqezius

The trapezius is located in the upper back, originating from the occipital bone and nuchal ligament and inserting into the clavicle and scapula. Its primary function is to elevate, retract, and rotate the scapula, and extend the neck.

discuss the location (origin and insertion) and function of tibialis anterior

The tibialis anterior is located in the anterior compartment of the lower leg, originating from the lateral condyle of the tibia and inserting into the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal bone. Its primary function is to dorsiflex the foot and invert the ankle.

discuss the location (origin and insertion) and function of the sternocleidomastoid

The sternocleidomastoid originates from the manubrium of the sternum and the clavicle, inserting at the mastoid process of the temporal bone. Its primary function is to rotate and flex the head and neck.

name the muscles that make up the hamstrings

The hamstrings consist of three muscles: the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus. These muscles are located at the back of the thigh and are responsible for flexing the knee and extending the hip.

discuss the location and function of the semitendinosus

The semitendinosus is located at the back of the thigh, originating from the ischial tuberosity and inserting on the medial surface of the tibia. Its primary functions are to flex the knee and extend the hip.

discuss the location and function of the biceps femoris

The biceps femoris is located at the back of the thigh, originating from the ischial tuberosity and the femur, and inserting into the head of the fibula. Its primary functions are to flex the knee and laterally rotate the hip.

discuss the location and function of the semimembranosus

The semimembranosus is located at the back of the thigh, originating from the ischial tuberosity and inserting into the medial condyle of the tibia. Its primary functions are to flex the knee and medially rotate the hip.

discuss the function and location of the quadriceps femoris

The quadriceps femoris is located at the front of the thigh, consisting of four muscle heads that originate from the femur and pelvis, inserting into the patella. Its primary function is to extend the knee and assist in hip flexion.

discuss the location and function of the rectus femoris

The rectus femoris is located at the front of the thigh, originating from the anterior inferior iliac spine and inserting into the patella. Its primary functions are to extend the knee and flex the hip.

state the function of oligodendrocytes and whether it is part of the pns or cns

Oligodendrocytes are specialized glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that produce myelin, which insulates axons to increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission. They provide support and protection for neurons in the CNS.

state the function of the 12 cranial nerves and whether is it part of the pns or cns

The 12 cranial nerves are responsible for a variety of functions, including sensory and motor functions of the head and neck, and they are primarily part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). They play roles in smell, vision, eye movement, facial sensation, and more.

state the function of the ascending tract and wheather is it part of the pns or cns

The ascending tract is a pathway in the central nervous system (CNS) responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the brain. It is primarily involved in conveying sensations such as touch, pain, and temperature.

state the function of the descending tract and whether it is part of the pns or cns

The descending tract is a pathway in the central nervous system (CNS) that transmits motor commands from the brain to the body. It is involved in controlling voluntary and involuntary movements.

state the function of the schwann cell and whether it is part of the pns or cns

Schwann cells are glial cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that produce myelin sheaths around axons, facilitating faster nerve impulse transmission. They also assist in the repair of damaged nerves.

state the function of the afferent neuron and whether it is part of the pns or cns

Afferent neurons are sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that carry sensory information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS). They play a key role in processing sensory input for perception and response.

state the function of the efferent neuron and whether is it part of the pns or cns

Efferent neurons are motor neurons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that transmit motor commands from the central nervous system (CNS) to effectors, such as muscles and glands, facilitating movement and action.

state the function of the ependymal cell and whether it is in the pns or cns

Ependymal cells are glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and help circulate it throughout the CNS.

state the function of the microglial cell and whether it is in the pns or cns

Microglial cells are specialized glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that act as immune defenders by responding to injury or disease, clearing debris via phagocytosis, and maintaining homeostasis.

state the function of the astrocytes and whether it is in the pns or cns

Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that support neurons, maintain the blood-brain barrier, regulate blood flow, and contribute to the repair and scarring process following central nervous system injuries.