Motivation and Emotions

Motivation "Gets You Moving"

Set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior; usually toward a goal.

Why people and animals initiate, choose, or persist in specific actions in specific circumstances

What do theories attempt to do

Theories of motivation attempt to "explain" why things happen

What are some Motivation theories

● Instincts

● Drive-reduction theory

● Incentive theory

● Cognitive theories

● Biological bases

Instinct Theory

motivation results from behaviors that are unlearned, uniform in expression, and universal in the species

What are instincts?

Instincts are innate patterns of behavior that occur in every normally functioning member of a species under certain set circumstances

What does the notion of instinct do?

The notion of instinct does not explain behavior - it just describes or labels behavior

Instinct Theory example

Baby is born with a "rooting" reflex that prompts her to turn her head toward your hand if you stroke her cheek or mouth. This helps her find the nipple at feeding time.

strengths of instinct theory

Helps explain behavioral similarities related to adaptations from our ancestral past

Limitations of instinct theory

Does not consider human cognitive capabilities

Explain animal behavior better than human behavior, humans have few, if any, true instincts

Drive Reduction Theory

Drive: hypothetical construct reflecting some internal state that orientates an organism to some goal

○ Hunger orientates the organism to food, thirst orientates to liquid, desire orientates to sexual gratification, etc.

● Based on the principle of homeostasis: the maintaining of biological conditions within a fairly narrow range.

○ When homeostatic levels are disrupted, this creates a drive to regain homeostasis

Drive Reduction Theory extra background info

● In Cannon's original proposal of this theory, all drives were considered to be based in homeostasis

● Clark Hull added that drives were derived from aversive conditions. He proposed that there are two types of drives:

○ Primary drives: induced by internal, biological needs

○ Secondary drives: drives that are acquired by experience(classical conditioning)

Strengths of drive reduction theory

Explains our motivation to reduce arousal by meeting basic needs, such as hunger or thirst

Limitations of drive reduction theory

Too simple to explain complex and varied behaviors of humans:

● Sex

● Curiosity

● Achievement

Biological Bases of Motivation: Sensation Seeking

This concept is put forward to explain the apparent need for certain levels of stimulation, including the need to explore the environment and the need for sensory stimulation.

Optimum Arousal Theory

Too much arousal and action is frenzied and ineffective...too little arousal and action is limited and therefore ineffective.

This indicates there may be an optimal level of arousal for behavior, and research indicates this is task-related as well.

● Example:

○ Bored? Do something exciting

○ Too hyper? Do something calming

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Easy tasks are performed better under conditions of higher arousal; more complex tasks require less arousal for optimal performance

Strengths of optimum arousal theory

Explains that motivated behaviors may decrease or increase arousal

Limitations of optimum arousal theory

Does not explain our motivation to address our more complex social needs

Incentive Theory

We are pulled into action by—positive or negative— by our environment

● Actions are directed toward the promise of a reward or punishment

● Extrinsically and Intrinsically Motivated

Self-Control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Intrinsic Motivation

Perform a behavior for own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

Perform a behavior for a reward

Strength of incentive theory

Based on well-established learning principles

Easily identifies external pulls on behavior

Limitation on incentive theory

Does not take internal stimuli into account, cannot explain behaviors that have no apparent external worth

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Expectancies, beliefs, and other mental processes are the basis of motivation.

● Rotter's expectancies

● McCelland's need for achievement (nAch)

● Festinger's cognitive dissonance

Rotter's Expectancies

Whether or not we engage in a behavior depends on both the value of the goal and our belief in our ability to reach that goal

Need for Achievement

nAch is a complex psychosocial motive to

● accomplish challenging goals

● attain high standards

● surpass the achievements of others

● and increase self-regard by succeeding in exercising one's talent.

Determination of nAch is done through the use of Murray's Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)

nAch stories

Stories with themes of problem-solving, individual effort, and success may indicate a high nAch.

Stories that are more relationship-based or do not reflect success may indicate a low nAch

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort occurs whenever two related cognitions or behaviors are in conflict.

This discomfort serves to motivate either behavioral or, more likely, belief changes.

Festinger (1957)

Had participants engage in a VERY boring task

Two groups:

● one group was paid $1 to lie to incoming subjects and say that the experiment was interesting and enjoyable

● one group paid $20 to lie to incoming subjects and say that the experiment was interesting and enjoyable

The $1 group actually changed their attitude towards the experiment (they believed that the experiment really was interesting!); the $20 group did not

Stimuli That Act on the Brain to Increase/Decrease Hunger

1. Stomach:receptors in the stomach are activated when the stomach is full; contractions may be associated with hunger

2.Intestine:monitors nutrient levels, particularly at the duodenum

◦ Both the stomach and intestine secrete cholecystokinin (CCK) a hormone that somehow affects satiety.

◦ It causes a decrease in the emptying rate of the stomach, and also decreases sham feeding rates, but we're just not sure how.

3. Liver:may also inhibit food intake. If glucose is injected into portal vein(which goes to the liver),see reduced eating

4. Brain:monitors glucose levels in the brain; reduced levels of glucose activate hunger

Brain and Eating Behavior: The Hypothalamus

Two areas of the hypothalamus are particularly implicated in hunger

◦ Lateral hypothalamus

◦ Ventromedial hypothalamus

lateral hypothalamus

Damage in this area causes animals to refuse to eat

This was initially thought to indicate the lateral hypothalamus was a "start eating" center

Further research has indicated that damage to the lateral hypothalamus creates a critter that isn't motivated to do much of anything (eat, drink, flirt with a sexy rat)

Certain cells in the lateral hypothalamus do respond to food stimuli when an animal is hungry, and these same cells are connected to the frontal cortex as well

Ventromedial Hypothallus

Damage to this area creates FAT animals that eat voraciously

This was thought to indicate the ventromedial hypothalamus was a "stop eating" center

Further research has indicated that damage to this area causes cells in the peripheral nervous system to store calories as fat, while starving other tissues

Stimuli That Act on the Brain to Increase/Decrease Hunger 5/6

5. Fat cells: produce a hormone called leptin that indicates how much fat is in the fat cells (the more fat, the more leptin is secreted). High levels of leptin are associated with reduced hunger

6. Environmental cues: sight &smell of food, time of day, etc. (a reflection of the incentive theory of motivation)

Factors Influencing Obesity

Overeating

◦ However, weight gain does not always have to do with food intake -quite truthfully, some obese people do not eat more than their skinny counterparts - sometimes they eat less!

Genetics

Early childhood weight (# of fat cells)

Metabolic factors & repetitive dieting

Chronic stress

Repetitive Dieting

If you diet frequently your body "decides" to spend less time on generating heat during the excess energy times and instead spends even more time storing fat

Anorexia Nervosa

an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to starve themselves

bullimia nervosa

an eating disorder involving gorging with food, followed by induced vomiting or laxative abuse

Sexual Motivation & Behavior

Cross-cultural research on sexuality illustrates there are MANY varying belief systems about appropriate sexual activity and behaviors.

Sexual behavior is related to both biological factors and(particularly for humans) social/cultural factors.

Hormones

chemicals that are secreted by ENDOCRINE GLANDS into the bloodstream

In male mammals, the main hormone related to sex is TESTOSTERONE which is secreted by the TESTES

In females, the counterpart is ESTROGEN which is secreted by the OVARIES

How Do Hormones Affect Adult Sexual Behavior?

Males: testosterone secretion is fairly constant

● Rats (and most mammals) - testosterone needs to be present for sexual behavior

● Humans - testosterone is not necessary, but helpful

Females: hormone production is cyclic - called the ESTROUS CYCLE

● Rats - estrus cycle lasts about 4 to 5 days, and sexual behavior only occurs during the estrus period or, more commonly, "heat." Receptivity depends on hormones; no hormones, no sex! This is true for most mammals, as well.

● Humans: estrus cycle last about 28 days, and females may mate at any time. Sexual activity is not tied to the cycle (at least no one has been able to prove it), and is not tied to the production of estrogen.

male hormones vs female hormones

"Male" hormones (i.e.,testosterone) in females play a bigger role than female hormones in female sex drive; the adrenal glands produce male hormones in females.... if they are removed, sexual interest is often decreased

Social/Cultural Influences on Sexual Behavior

When, where, how often... all seem to show strong cultural determinants

● Sexual Arousal:

● Courtship:

● Sexual goals:

Why are individuals attracted to other individuals?

Very little is known about HETEROSEXUAL attraction, but that doesn't stop people from trying to explain homosexual orientation.

Myths of Homosexuality

All of the following suggested causes of homosexuality have been shown to be FALSE:

● Seduction theory.

● "By default" theory

● Poor parenting:

● Modeling theory:

What does research support in sexual orientation?

Research supports biology(in particular, prenatal hormone levels/exposure)as playing a important role in sexual orientation.

As in every human behavior, sexual orientation depends upon a complex interaction of biology, experience, and cultural influences

Sexual Arousal

culture defines what stimuli of the individual and the situation are arousing

Courtship

culture defines what responses are permissible and effective for the goal of sexual contact

Sexual goals

in many ways, this is determined by the culture (children, orgasm?)

Seduction Theory

gays and lesbians seduced in childhood by adults of same sex.

"By default" theory

gays and lesbians unable to attract partners of opposite sex

Poor parenting

gay men have domineering mothers and weak or absent fathers; lesbian women have weak or absent mothers.

Modeling theory

children imitate gay or lesbian parents.

Emotion

A subjective experience that includes physiological arousal, cognitions, and expressions.

Emotions are feelings

They tend to be elicited by significant events, and are automatic and rapid in onset

While emotional expression can be suppressed at times, the experiencing of emotion is not cognitively controllable

What are the components of emotions?

Physiological arousal

Cognitive processes

Behavioral responses

Feelings

Physiological Arousal

hormonal/autonomic nervous system

Cognitive Processes

perception, learning, and memory

Behavioral responses

expressions, postures

Feelings

affect; the psychological experience of emotion

What are the Seven basic emotions

● Anger

● Fear

● Sadness

● Happiness

● Surprise

● disgust

●Contempt

*Anticipation & acceptance are sometimes included

What are the two dimensions emotions appear to vary along?

● Valence (positive or negative aspects)

● Intensity (the degree of arousal)

What are the five theories of emotion?

1. Common-sense view

2. James-Lange theory

3. Cannon-Bard theory

4. Schachter's theory

5. Ekman's facial-feedback theory

Common-Sense Theory

a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal

Stimulus(Bear)->Perception(Interpretation of stimulus-danger)->Emotion(Fear)->Bodily arousal(Pounding heart)

James-Lange Theory

Emotions occur automatically as a result of physiological reactions to events

Stimulus->Perception->behavior/body changes->emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions

Suggests that the physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause the other

1. See grizzly bear

2. Brain receives sensory input

3. Heart pounds and experience fear (at the same time)

Schacter-Singer/Two-Factor Theory

Perception leads to physical arousal and that arousal is cognitively interpreted in the context of perception to determine the emotion experienced

1. See grizzly bear

2. Cognitive Appraisal: We look back on a situation and consciously decide how we should feel.

a. "The grizzly bear looks scary."

3. Feel Scared

Paul Ekman's Facial Feedback Theory

The six basic emotions have specific facial expressions that accompany them

Emotional expression is tied to the emotional feeling.

"Social smiles"

Duchenne smiles

"Social smiles"

don't involve the muscles around the eyes, and thus both look and feel 'fake.'

Duchenne smiles

"real" smiles that involve both the cheek and eye muscles.