psych 2

chapter 6

chapter 6

chapter 6

learned behaviors

a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience

unlearned behaviors

instincts -- unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior

Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment results

Pavlov trained the dogs to associate the sound of a bell with being fed to the point where the dog would hear the bell and start salivating expecting the food to follow

Stimulus Generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Stimulus Discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

Behaviorism

the idea that all behavior can be studied as a simple stimulus-response reaction, without regard for internal processes

operant conditioning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior (getting paid for going to work and working)

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior (phone constantly bothering you to update to IOS)

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior (When a student is texting in class and the teacher calls them out and embarrasses them in front of their classmates)

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior (when children fight and the parents take the children’s favorite toy away)

vicarious learning

learning that is derived from indirect sources such as hearing or observation rather than direct, hands-on, instruction

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behavior

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behavior

chapter 7

chapter 7

concepts

categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences

concepts example

A psychology course; You learn about more than vocabulary for mental illnesses; There is a lot more information, like research methods, measurement tools, and mental processes; Your brain analyzes these details and develops an overall understanding of psychology; And during that time, your brain gathers details that inform and refine your understanding of related concepts like tolerance or personal compatibility

natural concept

created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences (watched local businesses become packed with tourists)

artificial concept

a concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics (algebra/geometry)

role schema

makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave (meeting a doctor)

event schema

set of behaviors that can feel like a routine (coming to class)

overgeneralization

an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule (Adding s at the end of everything plural; plural of goose may be assumed to be gooses or geeses)

problem solving strategies

trial and error -- multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

mental set

where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now

functional fixedness

type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for

emotional intelligence

encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways

dyslexia

inability to correctly process letters

dysgraphia

learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly

chapter 8

chapter 8

memory

the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time

3 functions of the memory

encoding, storage, and retrieval

self referencing effect

the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

sensory memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of seconds

short term memory

temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory

long term memory

the continuous storage of information

explicit memory

those we consciously try to remember and recall (The information you retain when studying for a psychology test)

implicit memory

memories that are not part of our consciousness (driving a car)

procedural memory

it stores information about how to do things (driving a car)

episodic memory

information about events we have personally experienced (special birthday)

three ways to retrieve information from our long-term memory

recall - it means you can access information without cues; recognition - when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again; relearning - involves learning information that you previously learned

anterograde amnesia

you cannot remember new information, although you can remember information and events that happened prior to your injury

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma

memory error 1 - transience

Memories can fade over time (Remembering that you like a movie that you haven’t seen in years, but not being able to remember the plot or what exactly you liked about the movie)

memory error 2 - absentmindedness

lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else (locking your car)

memory error 3 - blocking

can't access stored info (its on the tip of my tongue)

memory 4 - misattribution

When you confuse the source of your information (A mother with multiple kids confusing experiences among kids... so your mother asking if you remember the time you broke your arm, but that was actually, your younger brother)

memory 5 - bias

how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events

memory 6 - persistence

failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones (You witness a car accident on the way to school and you can’t concentrate on your classes because you keep remembering the scene)

chapter 9

chapter 9

categories of life span development 1 - physical

growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness

categories of life span development 2 - cognitive

learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

categories of life span development 3 - psychosocial

emotions, personality, and social relationships

effect of culture on development milestones

biological milestones, such as puberty, are usually experienced around the same time for children across cultures; cultural aspects influence when a child experiences a social milestone (age of going to school)

psychosocial development

emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature

assimilation

take in information that is comparable to what they already know

accomodation

change their schemata based on new information

object permanence

The understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists

newborn reflexes

inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation (touching a baby’s hand activates the grasping reflex)

gross motor skills

on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (balancing, running, and jumping)

fine motor skills

the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon)

motor skills

our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects

stages of adult hood - young (20-40)

Physical development; Physical maturation (puberty) has ended; Peak of physical abilities; Cognitive development continues; Our crystalized intelligence tends to hold steady or improve with age

stages of adult hood - middle (40-early 60s)

Physical development; Energy decreases slowly; Skin loses elasticity and becomes slightly wrinkled; Vision decreases slowly over time; Weight gain; Hair begins to turn gray; Cognitive development continues; Crystalized intelligence still may improve

stages of adult hood - late (60s+)

Physical development; Skin continues to lose elasticity; Reaction time slows further; Muscle strength diminishes; Smell, taste, hearing, and vision decline significantly; Cognitive development; Decrease in fluid intelligence; But it’s preventable if continuously challenged intellectually.

chapter 10

chapter 10

motivation

the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal

intrinsic motivation

motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards

extrinsic motivation

motivation that arises from external factors or rewards

drive theory

deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis

cannon-bard theory

physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time

james-lange theory

behavior was driven by a collection of instincts, to ensure survival (Instincts – species-specific pattern of unlearned behaviors)

yerkes-dodson law

simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower

anorexia

characterized by the maintenance of a body weight well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise

bulimia

binge eating behavior that is followed by purging the food by inducing vomiting or through the use of laxatives are two common compensatory behaviors (an attempt to compensate for the large amount of food consumed)

binge eating

type of eating disorder characterized by consumption of large quantities of food in a short period of time, which is associated with stress

self - efficiency

an individual’s belief in their own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or a similar task

emotions

a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings

mood

a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur in response to something we experience

facial feedback hypothesis

suggests that it’s possible to smile then feel happiness afterward