Week 6: segregation

What historical processes are linked to suburbanization and inner city decline?

Suburbanization and inner city decline are part of the same process that provides pre-conditions for gentrification.

How did the suburbs and cities change after World War II?

The suburbs experienced 'whitening' while US cities saw 'Blackening', driven by consumption preferences and production conditions.

What is residential segregation described as in contemporary racial inequality?

Residential segregation is referred to as the 'structural lynchpin of contemporary racial inequality' (Ellison and Martin 1999).

How did early urban sociology view the Black ghetto?

Early urban sociology treated the Black ghetto as a 'natural' feature of ethnic differentiation, similar to 'immigrant ghettos'.

What was the reality of the Black ghetto compared to immigrant ghettos?

Unlike immigrant ghettos, which had no single ethnic majority, African-Americans were far more isolated from 1930 to 1980.

What events contributed to the formation of the US ghetto between 1900 and 1920?

The formation involved waves of racial violence, including bombings of Black homes and the establishment of 'improvement associations' that lobbied for zoning restrictions.

What was the impact of the Great Depression on African-American migration?

The Great Depression led to 400,000 African-Americans migrating from the South to the North.

How did World War II affect African-American migration?

WWII increased demand for factory workers in the North, accelerating African-American migration and leading to 'piling up' in urban areas.

What percentage of neighborhoods occupied by African-Americans were 'all black' in the 1960s?

In the 1960s, 90% of neighborhoods occupied by African-Americans were 'all black' or becoming so.

What did surveys in the 1960s reveal about white Americans' views on neighborhood segregation?

In 1962, 61% of white Americans believed they had the right to keep blacks out of their neighborhoods; this decreased to 47% by 1970.

What factors restricted access to suburban housing for the Black middle class in the 1950s and 1960s?

Access was restricted through racial covenants, realtors, subdivision developers, and Home Owners' Associations.

What is the consumption-side argument regarding white resistance to racial integration?

The argument states that white resistance to racial integration is nearly universal, with skin color perceived as a direct threat to social position.

What are the Black-White Segregation Indices for Milwaukee from 1990 to 2018?

Milwaukee's segregation indices were 82.8 (1990), 83.3 (2000), 81.5 (2010), and 76.1 (2018).

What was the Supreme Court's ruling regarding the Chicago Housing Authority in 1976?

The Court ruled that race was the only plausible explanation for the veto of over 99.5% of housing units on White sites.

What was the response of the Chicago Housing Authority after the Supreme Court ruling?

The CHA ceased to build public housing altogether in response to the ruling.

What was the trend in African-American spatial isolation from 1930 to 1970?

African-American spatial isolation more than doubled across the US during this period.

What was the significance of the Chicago Race Riots of 1919?

The riots involved violent attacks on African Americans by bands of whites, highlighting racial tensions and violence.

What role did real estate agents play in the ghetto formation?

Real estate agents profited from rising prices in limited 'safe' neighborhoods due to rapid Black migration.

What was the impact of zoning restrictions on African-Americans in urban areas?

Zoning restrictions discouraged African-Americans from moving into certain neighborhoods, contributing to segregation.

What was the Home Owner's Loan Corporation (HOLC) established for in 1933?

It began the first federal mortgage program and created 'residential security maps' to indicate the riskiness of real estate investments.

What did the 'residential security maps' indicate?

They indicated the riskiness of real estate investments in 239 urban areas, with areas encircled by red lines labeled 'high risk' receiving no federally-backed mortgages.

What was the rating for African-American neighborhoods in Richmond, VA according to HOLC maps?

Every African-American neighborhood was rated 'D' for 'fully declined'.

What is 'redlining'?

Redlining is the practice of denying mortgages based on sociological assumptions about racial and religious minorities, leading to systematic disinvestment in poor, non-white neighborhoods.

How did redlining affect African-American neighborhoods?

It reinforced racially-segregated residential geography and led to disinvestment in African-American neighborhoods.

What role did private banks play in the redlining process?

Private banks relied heavily on HOLC's residential security maps to construct their own ratings, which persisted into the 1970s.

What major federal loan programs were launched after WWII?

The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Veterans Administration (VA) launched major federal loan programs to fund American homeownership.

How did the FHA change the mortgage landscape?

The FHA guaranteed 90% of the mortgage value, standardized 30-year mortgages, and made 10% down payments the norm.

What was the impact of the FHA on US homeownership rates?

US homeownership skyrocketed from 44% to 63% in the 1940s and 1950s.

What was the racial distribution of FHA and VA mortgages between 1934 and 1964?

98% of FHA and VA mortgages went to white middle-class suburbs.

What was the purpose of the Fair Housing Act of 1968?

The Fair Housing Act aimed to eliminate discrimination in housing and was passed after the Kerner Commission Report highlighted the issues of segregation and poverty.

Who was George Romney and what was his role in the Fair Housing Act?

George Romney was appointed Secretary of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and was responsible for implementing the Fair Housing Act.

What challenges did the Fair Housing Act face after its passage?

HUD's enforcement powers were weakened after Nixon's administration, leading to a decline in enforcement of the Fair Housing Act.

What was the significance of Livingston College, Rutgers, founded in 1969?

It was established to meet the educational needs of a diverse student body, including black and Puerto Rican students, and to reject a track system of education based on background.

What were the consumption-driven causes of urban segregation after WWII?

White households sought to leave cities for suburbs, and various strategies were employed to maintain segregated neighborhoods.

What were the production-driven causes of urban segregation?

Financial and governmental incentives encouraged 'White Flight' from urban areas to suburbs.

What did the Newsday analysis reveal about housing discrimination in Long Island?

The analysis found unequal treatment in housing listings, with 19% against Asians, 39% against Hispanics, and 49% against African-Americans.

What questions remain regarding the impact of redlining on housing finance today?

Questions include how the history of redlining affects 21st-century changes in housing finance and its role in the 2008 financial crisis.

What was the Kerner Commission tasked with investigating?

The Kerner Commission was instructed to investigate the causes of urban riots and recommend solutions to prevent future occurrences.

What was the outcome of the Kerner Commission's findings?

The Commission concluded that segregation and poverty created destructive environments in racial ghettos, implicating white society in maintaining these conditions.

What were the major riots in the US during 1965-1968?

The Newark riots in 1967 and Detroit's 'Great Rebellion' in the same year were significant events, leading to numerous deaths and military intervention.