Studied by 6 people
State what an experiment is.
An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable.
State what a variable is.
It is a concept that we are trying to study in a research; a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way.
State what a hypothesis is.
A precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study.
State what an independent variable is.
The one being manipulated in the study and is responsible for the changes of DV.
State what a dependent variable is.
The one being measured and is expected to change under the influence of IV.
State what an extraneous variable is.
A variable which either acts randomly, affecting the DV in all levels of the IV.
State what a confounding variable is.
A variable which either acts randomly, affecting the DV and all levels of the IV.
Environment (e.g. temperature)
Uncontrolled variable: a variable that may not have been identified and eliminated in an experiment, which can confuse the results. It may be a feature of the participants or the situation.
State what demand characteristics are.
Clues in the environment that suggest how a participant should behave.
State what experimenter effects are.
When a researcher unintentionally suggests clues for how a participant should behave.
State what participant variables are.
Individual differences between participants (such as age, personality and intelligence) that could affect their behaviour in a study. They could hide or exaggerate differences between levels of the IV.
Personality: individual difference in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Hence, the attitude of the person in a particular situation.
Attitude: it is the consistent behavior of the person given in a particular situation
Behavior: is the action/response to a particular stimuli or situation
Mood: a temporary state of mind or feeling
Mental and physical health
State what random allocation is.
A way to reduce the effect of confounding variables such as individual differences. Participants are put in each level of the IV such that each person has an equal chance of being in any condition.
State what experimental condition is.
One or more of the situations in an experiment which represent different levels of the IV and are compared (or compared to a control condition).
State what control condition is.
A level of the IV in an experiment from which the IV is absent. It is compared to one or more experimental conditions.
Describe what independent measures design is.
An experimental design in which a different group of participants is used for each level of the IV (condition).
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of independent measures design.
Advantages:
Different participants are used in each level of the IV so there are no order effects
Participants see only one level of the IV, reducing the effect of demand characteristics
Random allocation to levels of the IV can reduce the effects of individual differences
Disadvantages:
Participant variables can distort results if there are important individual differences between participants in different levels of the IV
More participants are needed than in a repeated measures design so the study may be less ethical if participants are harmed and less effective if there is a small sample because participants are hard to find
Describe what repeated measures design is.
An experimental design in which each participant performs in every level of the IV.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures design.
Advantages:
Participant variables are unlikely to distort the effect of the IV, as each participant does all levels
Counterbalancing reduces order effects
Uses fewer participants than repeated measures so is good when participants are hard to find or if participants are at risk
Disadvantages:
Order effect could distort the results
As participants see the experimental task more than once, they have greater exposure to demand characteristics
Describe what matched pairs design is.
An experimental design in which participants are arranged into pairs. Each pair is similar in ways that are important to the study and one member of each pair performs in a different level of the IV.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of matched pairs design.
Advantages:
Participants see only one level of the IV, reducing the effect of demand characteristics
Participant variables are less likely to distort the effect of the IV than in an independent measures design as individual differences are matched
No order effects
Disadvantages:
The similarity between pairs is limited by the matching process, so the right matching criteria must be chosen in advance for this to be effective
Availability of matching pairs may be limited, making the sample size small (although some studies conducted on twins use very large numbers of pairs)
Describe what order effects are.
As each individual participates in every level of the IV they will perform the same or similar tasks two or more times which results to changes in performance between conditions that are not due to the IV, so can obscure the effect on the DV.
Describe the types of order effects.
Practice effect: a situation where participants’ performance improves because they experience the experimental task more than once, e.g. due to familiarity or learning the task.
Fatigue effect: a situation where participants’ performance declines because they have experienced an experimental task more than once, e.g. due to boredom or tiredness.
Describe a solution for order effects.
Counterbalancing is used to overcome order effects in a repeated measures design. Each possible order of levels of the IV is performed by a different sub-group of participants. This can be described as an ABBA design, as half the participants do condition A then B, and half do B then A.
Describe what a laboratory experiment is.
A research method in which there is an IV, a DV and strict controls. It looks for a causal relationship and is conducted in a setting that is not in the usual environment for the participants with regard to the behaviour they are performing.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a laboratory experiment.
Advantages:
Good control of extraneous variables, raising validity
Causal relationships can be determined
Standardised procedures raise reliability and allow replication
Disadvantages:
The artificial situation could make participants’ behaviour unrepresentative
Participants could respond to demand characteristics and alter their behaviour
Describe what a field experiment is.
It is conducted in the normal environment for the participants for the behaviour being investigated. Investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an IV is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the DV.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment.
Advantages:
As participants are in their normal situation for the activity being studied they are likely to behave naturally, making the results representative
If participants are unaware that they are in a study, the problem of demand characteristics is less than in laboratory experiments
Disadvantages:
Control of extraneous variables is harder than in laboratory experiments, lowering reliability and making replication difficult
The researcher will be less sure that changes in the DV have been caused by changes in the IV than in a laboratory experiment
Participants may be unaware that they are in a study, raising ethical issues
Describe what a natural experiment is.
An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which the independent variable cannot be directly manipulated by the experimenter. Instead they study the effect of an existing difference or change. Since the researcher cannot manipulate the levels of the IV it is not a true experiment.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment.
Advantages:
They can be used to study real world issues
If participants are in their normal situation, their behaviour is likely to be representative
If participants are unaware that they are in a study, demand characteristics will be less problematic
They enable researchers to investigate variables that it would not be practical or ethical to manipulate
Disadvantages:
They are possible only when differences arise naturally
Control over extraneous variables is oft en very difficult
As the researcher is not manipulating the IV, they will be less sure of the cause of changes in the DV, so a causal relationship cannot necessarily be established
They are often hard to replicate, as controls and standardisation are hard to implement, so the reliability may be low
Describe what standardisation is.
Keeping the procedure for each participant in an experiment (or interview) exactly the same to ensure that any differences between participants or conditions are due to the variables under investigation rather than differences in the way they were treated.
Describe what validity is.
The extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing
Describe what reliability is.
The extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent, for example that it would produce the same results with the same people on each occasion.
Describe what generalisability is.
The ability to apply the findings of a study more widely, e.g. to other settings and populations.
Describe what ecological validity is.
The extent to which the findings of research in one situation would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation (e.g. a laboratory) represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life (has mundane realism).
Describe the 7 ethical considerations.
Here are brief descriptions of the 7 ethical considerations for a psychology study:
Informed consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study and give their voluntary consent to participate.
Right to withdraw: Participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
Privacy: Participants' personal information must be kept confidential and their privacy must be respected.
Confidentiality: Participants' data must be kept confidential and not shared with unauthorized individuals.
Debriefing: Participants must be given a full explanation of the study after it is completed.
Protection from harm: Participants must be protected from both physical and psychological harm.
Deception: Deception should be avoided, but if necessary, participants must be fully debriefed and protected from harm.
State what self-reports are.
A research method, such as a quest ionnaire or interview, which obtains data by asking participants to provide information about themselves.
State what a questionnaire is.
A research method that uses written questions.
Describe what the two types of questions are.
Open questions:
Questionnaire, interview or test items that produce qualitative data. Participants give full and detailed answers in their own words, i .e. no categories or choices are given.
Closed questions:
Questionnaire, interview or test items that produce quantitative data. They have only a few, stated alternative responses and no opportunity to expand on answers. i .e. type of survey response scale that provides two options, which lie at opposite ends (dichotomous scale), series of statements that respondents may choose from in order to rate their responses to evaluative questions (Likert Scale)
State what qualitiative data is.
Non-numerical data; usually narratives gained from interviews, observations, and questionnaires. It produces more detailed, in-depth information. Answers to open questions have to be interpreted, and this can lead to a lack of reliability as the researcher may not be consistent in their interpretation.
State what quantitative data is.
A value of data in the form of counts or numbers where each data set has a unique numerical value.
Explain what the advantages and disadvantages of using a questionnaire are.
Advantages:
Questionnaires that mainly closed questions are easier to analyse than interviews (using more open questions) as they can be used to produce totals of each category of answers so making it simple to summarise the findings. It is also possible to work out averages, which can help to describe the patterns in the results.
Where qualitative data is gathered from questionnaires, it produces more detailed, in-depth information.
It is also cheaper and less time-consuming to use questionnaires
Disadvantages:
Possible lack of inter-rater reliability.
Social desirability bias
One problem with questionnaires is that it is easy for participants to ignore them, which means the return rate may be very low.
Importantly, the people who do reply to a questionnaire may all be quite similar, for example have time to spend because they are unemployed or retired. This would mean all the people who filled out the questionnaire would be quite similar.
Describe what inter-rater reliability is.
The extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses in a questionnaire (or interview) will produce the same records from the same raw data.
Describe what social desirability bias is.
Trying to present oneself in the best light by determining what a test is asking
State a solution for social desirability bias.
Filler questions are items put into a questionnaire, interview or test to disguise the aim of the study by hiding the important questions among irrelevant ones so that participants are less likely to alter their behaviour by working out the aims.
State what an interview is.
A research method using verbal questions asked directly, e.g. face-to-face or on the telephone.
Describe the three types of interviews.
Structured:
An interview with questions in a fixed order which may be scripted. Consistency might also be required for the interviewer’s posture, voice, etc. so they are standardised.
Unstructured:
An interview in which most questions (after the first one) depend on the respondent ’s answers. A list of topics may be given to the interviewer.
Semi-Structured
An interview with a fixed list of open and closed questions . The interviewer can add more questions if necessary.
Explain what the advantages and disadvantages of using an interview are.
Advantages:
Advantages of using an interview in a psychology study include the ability to gather in-depth and detailed information about a participant's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Interviews also allow for the researcher to clarify any misunderstandings or ambiguities in the participant's responses.
Additionally, interviews can establish rapport between the researcher and participant, leading to more honest and open responses.
Disadvantages:
Social desirability bias
Interviewing is often time consuming and this can be a problem if it restricts the types of participants who volunteer for the research because it would give a narrow representation of feelings, beliefs or experiences.
Subjectivity in interpretation: a personal viewpoint, which may be biased by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so may differ between individual researchers. It is not independent of the situation.
Objectivity in interpretation: an unbiased external viewpoint that is not affected by an individual’s feelings , beliefs or experiences , so should be consistent between different researchers.
State what a case study is.
Is a detailed investigation of a single instance, usually just one person, although it could, for example, be a single family or institution. The data collected is detailed and in-depth and may be obtained using a variety of different techniques. For example, the participant may be interviewed, observed, given tests or asked to fill in questionnaires.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using a case study.
Advantages:
Case studies provide a deep exploration of individuals within their genuine context, such as their work or family.
Triangulation, using multiple techniques, enhances validity by producing similar findings across different methods.
Case studies offer comprehensive details about the individual's past, present, social interactions, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Disadvantages:
Close relationships between researchers and participants may introduce subjectivity and reduce the study's validity.
The level of detail in case studies can intrude into the participant's private life, potentially posing ethical concerns.
Maintaining participant confidentiality can be challenging, as their identity may be difficult to disguise even without using their name.
State what observation is.
Involve watching human or animal participants.
Describe the four types of observation.
Naturalistic:
A study conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour in their normal environment without interference from the researchers in either the social or physical environment.
Controlled:
A study conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour in a situation in which the social or physical environment has been manipulated by the researchers. It can be conducted in either the participants’ normal environment or in an artificial situation.
Unstructured:
A study in which the observer records the whole range of possible behaviours, which is usually confined to a pilot stage at the beginning of a study to refine the behavioural categories to be observed.
Structured:
A study in which the observer records only a limited range of behaviours. e.g. the range of behaviours studied is narrowed to a set of behaviours
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using naturialistic observation.
Advantages:
Naturalistic observations have the advantage that the behaviours seen are true to life. They are more likely to reflect the way the individuals really behave than if there is interference in the situation from researchers, as is the case in controlled observations.
Disadvantages:
However, there is no guarantee that the behaviours being studied will actually occur in a naturalistic situation, so it may be necessary to use a controlled observation.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using controlled observation.
Advantages:
The ability to control extraneous variables, the ability to replicate the study, and the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Disadvantages:
Potential for demand characteristics, the potential for observer bias, and the potential for artificiality in the setting.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using unstructured observation.
Advantages:
Using an unstructured observation ensures that any important behaviours are recognised
Ability to capture unexpected behaviors and interactions, as well as the flexibility to adapt to the situation
Disadvantages:
It may be very difficult to record all the activities accurately and many may be irrelevant
Difficulty in recording and analyzing data in a systematic manner
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using structured observation.
Advantages:
The ability to collect quantitative data
The ability to compare and contrast behaviors across different settings
The ability to ensure consistency in data collection.
Disadvantages:
The potential for observer bias
The limited scope of data collected
State what behavioural categories are.
The activities recorded in an observation. They should be operationalised (clearly defined) and should break a continuous stream of activity into discrete recordable events. (specified). They must be observable actions rather than inferred states
State what inter-observer reliability is.
The consistency between two researchers watching the same event, i.e. whether they will produce the same records.
Describe the two types of observers.
Participant:
A researcher who watches from the perspective of being part of the social setting.
Covert: not obvious, e.g. because they are hidden or disguised.
Overt: obvious to the participants.
Non-participant:
A researcher who does not become involved in the situation being studied, e.g. by watching through one-way glass or by keeping apart from the social group of the participants
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using overt observers.
Advantages:
Transparency: An overt observer is openly present and acknowledged by the participants, which promotes transparency in the research process. This can create a more authentic and natural setting for the participants
Disadvantages:
Overt observer is likely to alter the behaviour of the participants as they are aware that they are being watched.
This would reduce the validity of the findings as the activities being recorded are less likely to reflect real-world behaviour
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using covert observers.
Advantages:
Covert observers would produce more valid results than overt ones.
Disadvantages:
Potential harm to participants: In some cases, covert observation may expose participants to potential harm or invasion of privacy, as their actions and behaviors are observed without their knowledge or consent.
State what correlation is.
A research method which looks for a causal relationship between two measured variables. A change in one variable is related to a change in the other (although these changes cannot be assumed to be causal).
State when correlation should be used in research.
Can be used as basis for prediction
If variables are related, it is possible that one of them is the cause of the other
Test-retest reliability (relationship of two set of score for two different administrations)
Describe the two types of relationships in correlation.
Positive:
It indicates that there is a direct relationship between the variables. Increase in one variable coincides with the increase in the other variable.
Negative:
There is an inverse relationship between the variables. Decrease in one variable coincides with the increase in the other variable (vice versa).
State what aims are.
Aims tell you the purpose of the investigation. They are generally expressed in terms of what the study intends to show.
Describe what the four types of hypotheses are.
Alternative:
The testable statement which predicts a difference or relationship between variables in a particular investigation.
Null:
A testable statement saying that any difference or correlation in the results is due to chance, i.e. that no pattern in the results has arisen because of the variables being studied.
Directional:
A statement predicting the direction of a relationship between variables, e.g. in an experiment whether the levels of the IV will produce an increase or a decrease in the DV or in a correlation whether an increase in one variable will be linked to an increase or a decrease in another variable.
Non-Directional:
A statement predicting only that one variable will be related to another, e.g. that there will be a difference in the DV between levels of the IV in an experiment or that there will be a relationship between the measured variables in a correlation.
State what it means to operationalise variables.
The definition of variables so that they can be accurately manipulated, measured or quantified and replicated. This includes the IV and DV in experiments and the two measured variables in correlations.
State how population and sample are defined.
Population:
The group, sharing one or more characteristics, from which a sample is drawn
Sample:
The group of people selected to represent the population in a study.
Explain the three different types of sampling techniques.
Opportunity:
Participants are chosen because they are available, e.g. university students are selected because they are present at the university where the research is taking place.
Volunteer:
Participants are invited to participate, e.g. through advertisements via email or notices. Those who reply become the sample.
Random:
All members of the population (i.e. possible participants) are allocated numbers and a fixed amount of these are selected in a unbiased way, e.g. by taking numbers from a hat.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of opportunity sampling.
Advantages:
Quicker and easier than other methods as the participants are readily available
Disadvantages:
Likely to be non-representative as the variety of people available is likely to be limited, so they will tend to be similar and the sample could therefore be biased
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of volunteer sampling.
Advantages:
Relatively easy because the participants come to the researcher. They are also likely to be committed, e.g. willing to return for repeat testing
Disadvantages:
Likely to be non-representative as people who respond to requests may be similar, e.g. all have free time
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of random sampling.
Advantages:
Likely to be representative as all types of people in the population are equally likely to be chosen
Disadvantages:
In reality everyone may not be equally likely to be chosen, e.g. if they cannot be accessed (if the original list is incomplete) or if mainly one type of participant, e.g. girls, happen to be selected. This is particularly important if the sample is small
State the research method of Canli et al.
Laboratory experiment.
State the experimental research design of Canli et al.
Repeated measures design.
State the IV and DV of Canli et al.
IV: Intensity of the emotional arousal
DV: Level of activation of the amygdala + Measure of memory
State the materials utilised in Canli et al.
96 scenes (pictures) from the ‘International Affective Picture System’ stimuli set, with average ratings for valence ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral)
1.5 Tesla fMRI scanner
Explain the procedure of Canli et al.
Preliminary stage:
All the participants were given informed consent
Individuals who were operating the fMRI scanner were fully trained and competent
Experimental stage:
Participants viewed a series of 96 scenes that were presented via an overhead projector and mirror.
Order of scenes are randomized per participant. Presented for 2.88s each & 12.96s interval.
Fixation cross was used to indicate their emotional arousal by pressing a button with their right hand
Unexpected recognition test after 3 weeks. Using 96 same scenes and 48 new scenes (foils).
Participants were asked whether they had seen each scene before.
State the sampling method used in Canli et al.
10 right-handed healthy females (Volunteer Sampling).
Describe the research method and design of Dement and Kleitman.
Laboratory Experiment
Aim 1: Repeated Measures Design
IV: Awake from REM or nREM
DV: Recalled dream or not
Aim 2: Correlation (Repeated Measures Design)
Aim 3: Self-reports
State the sampling method used for Dement and Kleitman.
Seven male and two female adults were used, five of whom were studied in detail. The remaining four were used to confirm the results of the first five. Opportunity sampling was used.
Explain the procedure of Dement and Kleitman.
Participants reported to the lab before their personal bedtime. They ate their normal diet but were asked to avoid caffeine (alertness) and alcohol (drowsiness) on the day of the study. They slept in a dark, quiet room. They had 2 EOG electrodes near their eye and 2/3 EEG electrodes to the scalp. A doorbell (for standardisation) had been used to wake participants up at random from REM or NREM. All participants were woken up when an eye movement pattern lasted for at least a minute. Everyone returned to sleep in less than 5 minutes.
Procedure 1 - They were woken up at various times to test their dream recall (during REM and NREM). Dream narrative recorded on a tape recorder (to prevent researcher bias). They were asked if they had a dream or not, and if they did, then they recorded it. Dream only counted if the recall was clear.
Procedure 2 - Participants were woken up after either 5 or 15 minutes into their REM sleep. Participants guessed the duration they had dreamt for. The number of words in the dream narrative was counted after the participants reported their dream. \n \n
Procedure 3 - Participants’ eye movement direction was detected with the EOG. Participants were woken up and they reported their dream.
State the materials used in Dement and Kleitman.
EEG (electroencephalogram) = traces cyclical changes that occur in brain activity during sleep. Electrodes are placed around the skull to analyse brain waves.
EOG (electrooculogram) = traces eye movements during sleep. Uses electrodes placed around the eye region.
State what arousal is.
A state of physiological activation or cortical responsiveness, associated with sensory stimulation and activation of fibers from the reticular activating system.
A state of excitement or energy expenditure linked to an emotion.
Closely related to a person's appraisal of the significance of an event or the physical intensity of a stimulus
Describe the three types of nervous systems.
Parasympathetic nervous system: It is located in between the spinal cord and the medulla. It primarily stimulates the body’s “rest and digest” and “feed and breed” responses.
Sympathetic nervous system: Its primary function is to stimulate the body’s fight or flight response. It does this by regulating the heart rate, rate of respiration, pupillary response and more.
Autonomic nervous system: controls thinking, emotion and behavior; composed of brain, spinal cord, all nerves
Describe the two-factor theory of emotion.
That emotional experience comes from a combination of a physical state of arousal and a cognition that makes best sense of the situation the person is in. For example, the Two Factor Theory of Emotion argues that when people become aroused they look for cues as to why they feel the way they do from the environment and interpret their arousal in relation to this. Therefore, any emotional experience is a combination of physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation.
State what cognition is.
Cognition – mental processes of acquiring and processing knowledge.
State what emotion is.
Emotion – the body’s adaptive response to a particular situation.
State what metacognition is.
Metacognition – thinking about thinking.
Explain the strengths and weaknesses of Schacter-Singer.
Strengths:
It was a highly controlled laboratory experiment, as the same experimental rooms were used, and the stooge had given scripted responses. Participants were randomly allocated to different conditions. All participants were deceived, and the double-blind technique was used.
Questionnaires helped operationalise the dependent variables, therefore the data is standardised.
Quantitative data collected can be easily analysed and used to compare results across two conditions.
Weaknesses:
The sample consisted of university students so participant variables may distort findings. This makes results less valid.
The sample only had male participants thus, the study is less generalisable as females may experience emotions differently.
Questionnaire does not give participants the same freedom to express feelings as discussions would.
Adrenalin does not affect everyone in the same way due to individual differences.
No assessment was made of the participant's mood before the injection; thus, it reduces validity.
Describe what social cognition is.
How people process social information
How people learn from other people
Describe the two different types of attention.
Focused:
Picking out specific information
Divided:
Splitting mental effort
State what doodling is.
To draw pictures or patterns while thinking about something else or when you are bored
free space! good luck and hang in there :DD
:DDD
State the research method and design of Andrade.
Laboratory experiment
Independent measures design
Counterbalancing (DV only)
Describe the sampling method used for Andrade.
40 members of the Medical Research Council of the Applied Psychology Unit were chosen through the opportunity sampling method. Age range: 18-55 years. They were mostly women who were paid a small sum. They had completed participating in another study and were about to go home before they were asked to take part in Andrade's study.
State what materials were used for Andrade.
Mock telephone message and cassette recorder
Shape sheet-10 per row; alternated squares and circles
Lined paper for control group
Explain the procedure of Andrade.
Placed into IV groups
Participants in doodling condition asked to shade shaped on A4 paper
Control given piece of lined paper and pencil
Led to quiet room and tested individually.
Misled to believe it doesn 't matter if they remember.
Doodlers told that it doesn't matter how well they shaded.
2.5 minute tape, wrote down names
Sheet collected and they were talked to
Asked to recall names then places, or places than names
State what intelligent quotient is.
A measure of intelligence that produces a score representing the person's mental age. Average: 100
State what WAIS-R is.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised: a measure of intelligence and cognitive ability of adults and older adolescents
State what emotional quotient is.
A measure of emotional intelligence, whereby emotional intelligence is the ability of a person to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions.
State what autism quotient is.
A score obtained by the Autism Spectrum Quotient Test which comprises of a self-report with scores ranging from 0 to 50. Higher scores = more autistic traits
Describe the ceiling effect.
When a majority of the participants score the highest value.
This is problematic because it does not allow the researcher differentiate between participants.
Note
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