Mastering the World of Psychology; Chapter 1

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Scientific Method

the orderly, systematic procedures researchers follow:

- observe and theorize

- make a hypothesis

- design an experiment

- collect data

- apply results to the hypothesis

Theory

a general principle or set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the conditions under which a particular behavior or mental process may occur.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to verify research findings.

Goals of Psychology..

Description, Explanation, Prediction, and Influence.

Basic Research

Research conducted to seek new knowledge and to explore and advance general scientific understanding.

Applied Research

Research conducted specifically to solve practical problems and improve the quality of life.

Wilhelm Wundt

-Father of Psychology

-Studies of social and cultural influences on human thought

-Established a psychological laboratory at Leipzig in Germany in 1879

-Used a method called introspection.

Wundt's most famous student..

Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927).

Stucturalism

The first formal school of thought in psychology, aimed at analyzing the basic elements, or structure, of conscious mental experience.

- Wundt and Titchener

Introspection

is not objective, even though it involves observation, measurement, and experimentation.

Functionalism

An early school of psychology that was concerned with how humans and animals use mental processes in adapting their environment.

- James

William James (1842-1910)

was an advocate of functionalism, even though he did much of his writing before this school psychology emerged. He spoke of "stream of consciousness".

Behaviorism

The school of psychology that views observable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter for psychology and emphasizes the key role of environment as a determinant of behavior.

Founder: Watson

- B. F. Skinner was a big advocate

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

He agreed with Watson that concepts such as mind, consciousness, and feelings are neither objective nor measurable and, therefore, not appropriate subject matter for psychology.

Psychoanalysis

The term Freud used for both his theory of personality and is therapy for the treatment of psychological disorders; the unconscious is the primary focus of psychoanalytic theory.

Humanistic psychology

The school of psychology that focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.

Positive psychology

The scientific study of psychological characteristics that enable individuals and communities to thrive in the face of adversity.

Cognitive psychology

The school of psychology that sees humans as active participants in their environment; studies mental processes such as memory, problem solving, reasoning, decision making, perception, language, and other forms of cognition.

Gestalt Psychology

The school of psychology that emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units and that the perceived whole is more than the sum of its parts.

Evolutionary Psychology

The school of psychology that studies how human behaviors required for survival have adapted in the face of environmental pressures over the long course of evolution.

Biological Psychology

The school of psychology that looks for links between specific behaviors and equally specific biological processes that often help explain individual differences.

Neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field that combines the work of psychologists, biologists, biochemists, medical researchers, and others in the study of the structure and function of the nervous system.

Sociocultural approach

The view that social and cultural factors may be just as powerful as evolutionary and psychological factors in affecting behavior and mental processing and that these factors must be understood when interpreting the behavior of others.

Clinical psychologists

specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and behavioral disorders, such as anxiety, phobias, and schizophrenia.

School psychologists

are clinical psychologists who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of learning and behavioral problems that interfere with learning

Forensic psychologists

apply their training in clinical psychology to issues involving psychology and law

Counseling psychologists

help people who have adjustment problems (marital, social, or behavioral) that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists

Physiological psychologists

study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior

Experimental psychologists

conduct experiments in most areas of psychology - learning, memory, sensation, perception, motivation, emotion, and others.

Educational psychologists

specialize in the study of teaching and learning

Social psychologists

investigate how the individual feels, thinks, and behaves in a social setting - in the presences of others

Industrial/organizational psychologists

study the relationships between people and their work environments

Critical thinking

evaluating claims, propositions, and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from the evidence presented.

Descriptive research methods

methods that yield descriptions of behavior

Naturalistic observation

observe and record behavior in its natural setting, without attempting to influence or control it.

Laboratory observation

behavior is studied in a laboratory setting.

Case study

a single individual or a small number of persons are studied in great depth.

Survey

A descriptive research method in which researchers use interview and/or questionnaires to gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of people.

Population

The entire group of interest to researchers to which they wish to generalize their findings; the group from which a sample is selected.

Sample

A part of population that is studied to reach conclusions about the entire population.

Correlational method

A research method used to establish the degree of relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviors.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. Values range between +1.00 (perfect positive) to -1.00 (perfect negative correlation).

Experimental method

The only research method that can be used to identify cause-effect relationships between two or more conditions or variables.

Causal hypothesis

A prediction about a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.

Variable

Any condition or factor that can be manipulated, controlled, or measured.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, a factor or condition that is deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition.

Dependent variable

The factor or condition that is measured at the end of an experiment and is presumed to vary as a result of the manipulations of the independent variables.

Third Variable Problem

When one variable is associated with another because both are related to a third, unmeasured variable.

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to an independent variable.

Control group

In an experiment, a group similar to the experimental group that is exposed to the same experimental environment but is not given the treatment; used for purposes of comparison.

Confounding variables

Factors other than the independent variables that are unequal across groups.

Selection bias

The assignment of participants to experimental or control groups in such a way that systematic differences among the groups are present at the beginning of the experiment.

Random assignment

The process of selecting participants for experimental and control groups by using a chance procedure to guarantee that each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any of the groups; a control for selection bias.

Placebo effect

The phenomenon that occurs in an experiment when a participant's response to a treatment is due to his or her expectations about the treatment rather that to the treatment itself.

Placebo

An inert or harmless substance is given to the control group in an experiment as a control for the placebo effect.

Experimenter bias

A phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's preconceived notions or expectations in some way influence participants behavior and/or the researcher's interpretation of experimental results.

Double-blind technique

A procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is in the experimental and control groups until after the data have been gathered; a control for experimenter bias.

quasi-experiments

Comparisons of groups that differ in exposure to a variable of interest that cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons.

Cross-cultural research

Comparisons of mental processes and behaviors among humans living in different cultures.

Participant-related bias

A type of bias in which a study's participants are not representative of the population to which results will be generalized.