Final Lecture Exam Study Guide

Vocabulary flashcards for the digestive and urinary systems, metabolism, reproduction, genetics and fetal development. Terms and definitions are based on lecture notes.

Digestive System

Takes food into the body and break it down to its component nutrients so that they can be used by body cells.

ENS (Enteric Nervous System)

Self-contained branch of the ANS that regulates the digestive system.

SNS (Sympathetic Nervous System)

Inhibits digestion.

PSNS (Parasympathetic Nervous System)

Actively stimulates digestion.

Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

Needed to activate pepsinogen, destroys disease-causing organisms, and stimulates parietal cells to produce intrinsic factor.

G Cell

An enteroendocrine cell that secretes gastrin which stimulates parietal cell secretions.

Cephalic Phase

The first phase of gastric secretion that occurs before food enters the stomach. Triggered by sight, smell, taste or thought of food.

Gastric Phase

Phase of gastric secretion that occurs when food enters the stomach, stimulating vagus nerve and ENS.

Intestinal Phase

Phase of gastric secretion that begins when chyme enters the duodenum.

Bile

A substance that is produced by the liver that emulsifies fats.

Salivary Amylase

An enzyme that catalyzes the beginning of carbohydrate digestion, breaking down larger polysaccharides into smaller polysaccharides.

Pancreatic Amylase

Breaks polysaccharides into oligosaccharides.

Lactase, Maltase, Sucrase

Enzymes that break down lactose, maltose, and sucrose into monosaccharides.

Pancreatic Lipase

Enzyme that digests triglycerides into monoglycerides and free fatty acids.

Emulsification

Process where bile salts have a hydrophobic and hydrophilic side, breaking lipids into smaller parts.

Kidneys

Organ that filter blood to remove metabolic wastes and modify fluid for homeostasis, resulting in urine.

Ureters

Transports urine from kidneys to bladder.

Urinary Bladder

Stores urine.

Urethra

Allows urine to exit the body.

Filtration

Passive process in urine formation.

Reabsorption & Secretion

Two major processes in urine formation.

Hydrostatic Pressure (HP)

Force of fluid on capillary walls, pushing H20 out of the capillary and into interstitial space; hydrostatic pressure is also blood pressure.

Colloid Osmotic Pressure (COP)

Osmotic gradient created by proteins in the plasma that pulls water into the capillaries by osmosis.

NFP (Net Filtration Pressure)

Net filtration pressure determined by HP and COP. If HP>COP, water will flow out of the capillary. If COP>HP, water will flow in to the capillary.

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

System that Primarily maintains BP.

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide

Dilates afferent arterioles, constricts efferent arterioles, raising GFR.

Nephron Loop

The filtrate's osmolarity changes. The descending limb is freely permeable to water while the ascending limb is impermeable to water.

Vasa Recta

Supplies blood to medulla and helps to maintain osmotic gradient in medulla.

Catabolism

reactions that break down substances into smaller parts and releases energy.

Anabolism

reactions that combine smaller molecules into a larger molecule using energy.

Exergonic Reactions

Reactions that Release energy.

Endergonic Reactions

Reactions that Energy must be added/input.

Glycolysis

Takes place without oxygen.

Oxidative

Requires oxygen.

Lipolysis

An enzyme-catalyzed process that liberates fatty acids and glycerol.

Deamination

Removal of the amino group from an amino acid, allowing the remaining carbon skeleton to be oxidized for fuel.

Transamination

Transfer of an amine group from one amino acid to another, used to synthesize non-essential amino acids.

Glycogenesis

Storage of excess glucose from diet.

Glycogenolysis

Conversion of glycogen back into glucose.

Gluconeogenesis

Creation of new glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors.

Nutrient

Molecule obtained from food that the body requires for metabolic processes.

Basal Metabolic Rate

Minimal rate of metabolism for awake individual.

Essential Nutrient

molecules that the body is incapable of producing and must obtain from dietary sources.

Macronutrient

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (required in relatively large amounts).

Micronutrient

Vitamins & minerals (lower dietary requirement).

Testes

Male gonads that produce sperm and secrete testosterone

Ovaries

Female gonads that Produce ova and produce estrogens and progesterone

FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone)

Stimulates production of ABP (Androgen-binding protein) and inhibin.

ABP (Androgen-Binding Protein)

Keeps testosterone in vicinity of spermatogenic cells.

Inhibin

Inhibits FSH secretion.

Spermiogenesis

Process of sperm maturation.

Vagina

Pathway for sperm to enter uterine tubes; Site for newly fertilized ovum to implant and be protected and nourished during development; Organ of copulation, passway for giving birth & menstrual flow.

Endometrium

Innermost layer of the uterus, lines uterine cavity, and is a mucous membrane.

Oogenesis

Stem cells (oogonia) undergo mitosis during the fetal period.

Follicular Phase

Phase of the Ovarian Cycle - Primordial follicle to vesicular follicle.

Luteal Phase

Phase of the Ovarian Cycle - Ruptured follicle becomes an endocrine organ (corpus luteum), which secretes progesterone and some estrogen.

Menstrual Phase

Phase of the Uterine Cycle - Uterine lining is shed.

Proliferative (Preovulatory) Phase

Phase of the Uterine Cycle - New stratum functionalis generated.

Secretory Phase

Phase of the Uterine Cycle - Arteries convert stratum functionalis into secretory mucosa.

GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone)

a hormone from the hypothalamus which Stimulates secretion of LH and FSH.

Estrogens

Hormone from the Ovaries that Stimulate proliferation of endometrial cells and stimulate uterine contractions.

Pre-Embryonic Period

Starts with fertilization, ends with blastocyst uterine implantation.

Embryonic Period

Blastocyst grows, folds and forms rudimentary organ systems.

Fetal Period

Grows larger and continues to develop organ systems until it can function without assistance from the mother.

Fertilization

Is the fusion of a sperm cell and secondary oocyte to form a zygote.

Acrosomal Reaction

Triggers release of enzymes that digest zona pellucida.

Pronuclei Fusion

Spindle fibers form between male and female pronuclei and pronuclear membranes break down, allowing chromosomes to intermix.

Yolk Sac

First extraembryonic membrane to develop, it forms part of digestive tract & is a source of first blood cells & vessels.

Amnion

Transparent extraembryonic membrane that encloses conceptus in amniotic cavity.

Allantois

Extraembryonic membrane that Forms umbilical blood vessels in the umbilical cord.

Chorion

Extraembryonic membrane that Encloses all other membranes and embryo.

Gastrulation

Bilaminar disc forms into trilaminar embryonic disc, disc folds to form head, buttocks, left/right sides.

Organogenesis

Formation of major organ systems.

Ectoderm

Nervous system, epidermis, hair follicles are derived from this germ layer.

Mesoderm

Skeleton, cartilage & connective tissues, skeletal muscle, dermis, blood are derived from this germ layer.

Endoderm

Lining of digestive & respiratory tracts, epithelium of urinary bladder/urethra, and accessory glands are dervied from this germ layer.

Placenta

Fully formed by week -12. It is the site of exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste.

Chromosome

Nucleotide chains folded and compressed.

Allele

Variants of genes.

Homozygous

Two matching alleles that code for same trait.

Heterozygous

Two different alleles that code for traits.

Dominant and Recessive Alleles

Dominant alleles will be expressed if the individual is heterozygous (or homozygous dominant). Recessive alleles will only be expressed if homozygous recessive.

Incomplete Dominance

Heterozygous genotypes results in phenotype that is between homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive.

Codominance

Some alleles are equally dominant and equally expressed (AB blood type).

Polygenic Inheritance

Most inherited traits are controlled by combined effects of two or more genes.

Sex-Linked Disorders

Males will likely express the X-linked trait because the Y chromosome does not have an allele to influence expression.