OCR Classical Civilisation: Politics of the Late Republic

Optimates

Established leaders from established patrician backgrounds holding great power in the senate.

Examples of optimates

Sulla, Cato, Cicero

Populares

Roman politicians who sought to pursue a political career based on the support of the people rather than just the aristocracy. Their main tactic was to bypass the senate through using the tribunes to pass legislation, or getting popular approval through the assemblies.

Examples of populares

Marius, Julius Caesar

Boni

Men considered to be ideal statesmen: well educated, traditional, patriotic and experienced in politics (i.e. Cato)

Equites

Class of business people and landowners in ancient Rome who had wealth and power. Cicero was born to an equestrian family.

Novus Homo

"New man" - one whose ancestors had not been consul and had to develop their own relationships in the senate (i.e. Cicero)

Amicitia

A system of family alliances established to consolidate and further the success of influential leaders. "You scratch my back I'll scratch yours"

Concordia Ordinum

"The harmony of the orders": a political ideal held by Cicero in which the patricians and equites were united in the common good of governing the Roman state, encouraging the continuation and wellbeing of the Republican constitution.

Significance of the Gracchi for the future of the Republic

i.) They used the tribunate to undermine the traditional powers of the senate and revealed the potential for ambitious men to promote their own political careers.

ii.) The assemblies combined with the tribunes could wield great power with popularis ideology that appealed to the urban mob.

iii.) The senatorial class was divided into the populares and optimates factions.

iv.) Set a precedent for the SCU (senatus consultum ultimum) to sanction the use of violence against political threats.

v.) Increasing violence in politics

Senatus Consultum Ultimum

The final decree of the senate passed in times of crisis, allowing the suspension of the normal restrictions placed on consuls to do whatever was necessary to protect the state.

Significance of Marius' career

i.) Villa Annalis violated when Marius was elected to 5 consecutive consulships. This example paved the way for the extraordinary commands of Pompey and Caesar.

ii.) In opening military conscription to the plebs on a voluntary basis (as previously you had to be a landowner to join), Marius provided careers for a large number of the urban poor and unemployed.

iii.) The loyalty of the new recruits was to their commanding officer rather than the senate or people. This new attitude paved the way for civil wars in the future.

iv.) The conflict between the senate and Marius over land grants for veterans raised the question of pay and pensions for the army. Had the senate provided for the soldiers cash or land at the end of their term of service, they might have retained their hold on the Roman army. In essence, this meant that by having the generals provide for their army, they were essentially their own private forces.

v.) Marius' career illustrated the incredible power a tribune and military commander could wield in the state.

Sulla's reforms

AIMS:

- Strengthen the senate

- Restrict the powers of the tribunes

- Curb the independence of regular magistrates

- Avoid the dangers from proconsuls in their provinces

- Increase the number of magistrates

- Reorganise the courts and juries

REFORMS:

i.) Increased membership by 300 predominantly from equestrian families.

ii.) Tribunes could not propose legislation to the people except those sanctioned by the state. Their right of veto was limited and were deprived of their judicial powers.

iii.) Tribunes could not run for further political office.

iv.) A treason law was passed which forbade governors to leave their provinces, march beyond their frontiers or make war without the permission of the senate and people of Rome.

v.) The lex Villa Annalis was redrafted to prevent ambitious young men from getting to the top too quickly.

vi.) The corn dole abolished

Significance of the Cataline Conspiracy of 63

i.) Conspirators put to death without a trial by Cicero was technically illegal, and fully exploited by Clodius in 58 to get Cicero exiled.

ii.) Cicero glorified as pater patriae or "father of his country" by Cato. Daddy of daddies. Great ego boost, but sadly ignored by Pompey (Letter 5.7)

iii.) Caesar's proposal the conspirators be imprisoned for life instead of the death penalty. Early sign of his foresight?

Formation of the First Triumvirate in 60

Caesar: request to be nominated for consulship in absentia denied by the senate and gave up the honour of a triumph to enter his nomination. Wanted to give himself a more prestigious proconsular command than the silvae callesque appointed.

Pompey: Cato refuses Pompey's offer of marriage to one of his nieces, and his eastern settlement blocked, preventing him from honouring his promises to his veterans.

Crassus: senate refused a rebate for the equestrian tax farmers he spoke on behalf of as a result of the disruption of the Mithradatic War. Was also offended by inquiry into the bribery of jurors in the Bona Dea trial.

Significance of Caesar's first consulship in 59

i.) Caesar's use of force and failure to pay any attention to Bibulus' attempts to block his legislation made his measures technically illegal. His opponents now had a legitimate excuse to threaten him with prosecution as soon as he became a private citizen. This made it imperative that Caesar retain imperium in the future.

ii.) Caesar's lex Campania created more resentment than any other aspect of his legislation as it meant uprooting a significant number of rural peasantry. It was a symbolic gesture of the importance and power of the military and the urban populace.

iii.) Pompey's loss of popularity with the people and optimates was humiliating as he was extremely vulnerable to public opinion. He's sensitive and just wants to be liked.

iv.) Cracks in the coalition were obvious from the beginning. The aims of Pompey and Crassus were short-term, and once they had been satisfied, it became difficult to hide their enmity towards each other especially after Caesar left Italy.

Significance of Clodius' tribunate in 58

i.) Established a corn dole to bribe the people

ii.) Legislation of collegia that lead to the organisation of gangs under the guise of trade guilds/clubs. For the next few years there was constant gang warfare in the streets of Rome.

iii.) Bill introduced to banish any magistrate who had put to death a citizen without trial aimed at Cicero who had the Catalinarian conspirators put to death in 63. Clodius had beef with Cicero as a result of Cicero speaking out against him in the Bona Dea trial.

iv.) Cato removed from Rome to supervise the annexation of Cyprus. Cato had always been an outspoken critic of exceptional commands, but he had just accepted one himself which would make it difficult for him to speak against them in the future as he had accepted one himself.

v.) Clodius' vicious campaigns against Pompey (probably backed by Crassus) forced him to put together his rival gang lead by Milo. Gang warfare between Clodius and Milo highlighted the conflict between Pompey and Crassus. In 57, Pompey passed a bill using one of the tribunes calling for Cicero's recall from exile.

vi.) The tension in the triumvirate in this period lead to the Conference of Luca in 56.

Pompey's list of extraordinary commands

1. Given propraetorian commands against the Marians in Spain and Africa. Illegal according to the constitution as he never held the qualifying magistracy.

2. Awarded two triumphs by Sulla when not even a member of the senate for his role in defeating the Marians and Sertorius. The latter was mostly Crassus.

3. Elected to first consulship with Crassus in 70 seven years too young for the post without holding any offices before that.

4. lex Gabinia (pirates) and lex Manilia (Mithradates). Unlimited funds, men, ships and twenty four legates. Given permission to make war or peace on his own initiative.

5. Controller of the Corn supply for five years overlapping with the above.

6. Appointed by the senate as sole consul in 52. Against all principles of republican collegiality. Technically illegal as it was only 3 years since his last consulship with Crassus in 55, and the appointment was made in absentia.

7. Command against Caesar in 49 with proconsular imperium over all military forces in Italy.

Dominatio

A form of autocracy or despotism, the exact opposite to the Roman concept of a Republican state.

Libertas

Liberty; the political freedom of the citizens