AP Bio ultimate review (Units 1-8)

Biomolecules

Large molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Water

Polar molecule essential for life, with unique properties like cohesion, adhesion, and high specific heat.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; primary source of energy.

Lipids

Hydrophobic molecules used for energy storage, membrane structure, and signaling.

Proteins

Polymers of amino acids; responsible for structure, function, and regulation of tissues and organs.

Amino Acids

Building blocks of proteins; consist of a central carbon, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable R group.

Enzymes

Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; molecule that carries genetic information.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid; involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.

Nucleotide

Building blocks of nucleic acids; composed of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

Hydrogen Bonding

Weak bonds between hydrogen and electronegative atoms; important in DNA structure and water properties.

pH

Measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution; affects enzyme activity and chemical reactions.

Dehydration Synthesis

Chemical reaction in which two molecules are joined by removing a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

Reaction in which water is added to break down a molecule into smaller units.

Prokaryotic Cells

Cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Plasma Membrane

Phospholipid bilayer that separates the cell’s interior from the outside environment.

Cytoplasm

Gel-like substance inside the cell where organelles are located; site of metabolic reactions.

Nucleus

Membrane-bound organelle containing the cell’s DNA and controlling gene expression.

Mitochondria

Organelles responsible for energy production through cellular respiration.

Chloroplasts

Organelles in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Network of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus

Organelles that modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids for transport or secretion.

Lysosomes

Membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

Ribosomes

Structures responsible for protein synthesis, found in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein fibers that provides structural support, shape, and movement to cells.

Cell Wall

Rigid outer layer of plant, fungal, and bacterial cells, providing structure and protection.

Vesicles

Membrane-bound sacs used to transport materials within or outside the cell.

Endocytosis

Process by which cells engulf extracellular material by wrapping the plasma membrane around it.

Exocytosis

Process by which cells expel materials through vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

Main energy currency of the cell, used in various biochemical processes.

Cellular Respiration

Process by which cells break down glucose to produce ATP.

Glycolysis

First stage of cellular respiration; breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

Second stage of cellular respiration; occurs in mitochondria and produces high-energy electron carriers.

Electron Transport Chain

Final stage of cellular respiration; generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

Fermentation

Anaerobic process that allows cells to generate ATP when oxygen is unavailable.

Photosynthesis

Process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy.

Chlorophyll

Green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

Light-dependent Reactions

Stage of photosynthesis where sunlight is used to produce ATP and NADPH.

Calvin Cycle

Light-independent reactions of photosynthesis; converts carbon dioxide into glucose using ATP and NADPH.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

Temporary molecule formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate.

Activation Energy

The energy required to start a chemical reaction.

Feedback Inhibition

Regulatory mechanism in which the end product of a pathway inhibits an enzyme involved earlier in the pathway.

Signal Transduction Pathways

Processes by which a cell responds to external signals through a series of molecular events.

Receptors

Proteins that receive and bind to signaling molecules, initiating cellular responses.

G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)

Membrane receptors that activate G proteins in response to signaling molecules.

Tyrosine Kinase Receptors

Membrane receptors that phosphorylate tyrosine residues to trigger signaling pathways.

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

Second messenger molecule involved in the activation of signal transduction pathways.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death; essential for development and maintaining cellular health.

Mitosis

Process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

Type of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg), reducing the chromosome number by half.

Cell Cycle

Series of stages (G1, S, G2, and M) that a cell goes through to divide.

Interphase

Stage of the cell cycle where the cell grows, replicates DNA, and prepares for division.

Prophase

First stage of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

Metaphase

Stage of mitosis where chromosomes align in the center of the cell.

Anaphase

Stage of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart toward opposite poles.

Telophase

Final stage of mitosis where the nuclear envelope reforms around the separated chromatids.

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm and organelles between daughter cells at the end of mitosis.

Checkpoints

Regulatory points in the cell cycle that ensure proper cell division and DNA integrity.

Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent Kinases (CDKs)

Proteins that regulate the progression of the cell cycle.

Gene

Unit of heredity, a sequence of DNA that codes for a protein or RNA.

Alleles

Different forms of a gene that may produce variations in traits.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a particular gene.

Genotype

Genetic makeup of an organism; combination of alleles for a given trait.

Phenotype

Observable traits of an organism resulting from its genotype.

Punnett Square

Tool used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring from two parents.

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

Principles of heredity based on Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants: Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment.

Law of Segregation

Mendel's law stating that each allele for a gene separates into different gametes.

Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel's law stating that genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other.

Codominance

A type of inheritance in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed.

Incomplete Dominance

A type of inheritance where the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate blend of the two homozygous phenotypes.

Polygenic Inheritance

Inheritance pattern where multiple genes contribute to a single trait.

Sex-linked Traits

Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes, often exhibiting different inheritance patterns in males and females.

X-inactivation

Process by which one X chromosome in female mammals is randomly inactivated.

DNA Replication

Process of copying DNA before cell division; ensures each daughter cell has identical genetic material.

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that synthesizes new DNA strands during replication.

Helicase

Enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix ahead of the replication fork.

Ligase

Enzyme that joins Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

Okazaki Fragments

Short segments of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand during replication.

Transcription

Process by which an RNA molecule is synthesized from a DNA template.

RNA Polymerase

Enzyme that synthesizes RNA during transcription.

mRNA (messenger RNA)

RNA molecule that carries genetic information from the DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

Codon

A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

tRNA (transfer RNA)

RNA that brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation.

Ribosome

Organelles that facilitate protein synthesis by reading mRNA and linking amino acids.

Translation

Process by which mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids to form a protein.

Mutations

Changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to genetic variation or disorders.

Point Mutation

Mutation involving a single nucleotide; can lead to a change in the amino acid sequence.

Frameshift Mutation

Mutation that shifts the reading frame of the mRNA, usually causing significant changes in the protein.

Operon

Cluster of genes in prokaryotes regulated by a single promoter; includes an operator, promoter, and structural genes.

Lac Operon

An operon involved in the metabolism of lactose in bacteria; regulated by lactose availability.

Epigenetics

Study of changes in gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the DNA sequence.

Histone Modification

Chemical modifications to histone proteins that affect DNA packaging and gene expression.

RNA Splicing

Process of removing introns from pre-mRNA and joining exons together to form mature mRNA.

Introns

Non-coding regions of mRNA that are removed during RNA splicing.

Exons

Coding regions of mRNA that remain after splicing and are translated into protein.

Natural Selection

Process by which individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more effectively than those without.

Fitness

Measure of an organism's ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on its genes.