History - French Revolution

FRENCH SOCIETY DURING THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

1774 - Louis XVI of Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of the france → He was married to Austrian Princess Marie Antoinette

Louis XVI found an empty treasury -

• This was due to war going on for may years that had drained their resources

• Drained due to maintaining the palace of Versailles

• Under Louis XVI, France helped 13 American colonies gain independence from british colonies. Added 1 billion to growing 2 billion livres debt.

• Lenders asked for 10% interest on loans - Government forced to pay increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone

To meet regular expenses - cost to maintain army, the court, running govt offices/universities → third estate forced to raise taxes

1st Estate (Clergy) → 2nd Estate (Nobility) → 3rd Estate (Business Men, Merchants, Court Officials, Lawyers) (Peasants, Artisans) (Small Peasants, Landless Labourers, Servants)

Society of estates dated back to middle ages → old regime is used to describe the society and institutions of france before 1789.

Peasants made 90% of the French population → very small number of them owned the land they cultivated on → 60% of land was owned by nobles, church and richer members of the 3rd estate → members of the first two estates enjoyed privileges by birth → exempt from paying taxes to the state → nobles enjoyed feudal privileges - feudal dues to be extracted from peasants

Church extracted tithes from the peasants and all members of the third estate have to pay taxes to the state → included a direct tax known as the taille and a number of indirect taxes → france financed their activities of the taxes of the third estate alone

1.1 THE STRUGGLE TO SURVIVE

Population in France rose from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789 → led to increase of demand for foodgrains → production of grains could not keep up with the demand → bread which was the staple food of the majority rose rapidly → most workers worked as labourers in workshops whose owner gave them fixed wages → wages did not keep pace with increase in price → gap between the rich and the poor widened → this became worse when drought or hail reduced the harvest → led to subsistence crisis, something that occurred frequently in france during old regime

1.2 HOW A SUBSISTENCE CRISIS HAPPENS

Bad Harvest → Scarcity of Grains → Rising Food Prices → Poorest can no longer buy bread → Weaker Bodies → Disease Epidemics → increased number of deaths ← Food Riots

1.3 A GROWING MIDDLE CLASS ENVISAGES AN END TO PRIVILEGES

peasants and workers led revolts against increasing taxes and food scarcity → lacked means and programmes to carry out full-scale measures that would bring a change in social and economic order of france → left to those within 3rd estate who had become prosperous and had access to education and new ideas

Eighteenth Century witnessed emergence of social groups termed middle class → earned wealth through expanding overseas trade and manufacture of goods such as silk and woollen textiles that were either exported or bought by richer members of society.

Third estate included lawyers or administration officials → who were educated and believed that no class deserved to be privileged by birth → rather a person’s social position must depend on their merit → these ideas envisaged a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all → put forth by philosophers John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau.

Two Treatises of Government by John Locke - sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch → rousseau carried the idea forward by proposing a form of government based on a social contract between the people and their representatives.

The Spirit of Laws by Montesquieu - proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary → this model of government was put into force in USA after the 13 colonies declared independence from Britain → American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important example for political thinkers in France.

Ideas of the philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among the people through books and newspapers → frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who could not read or write → plans of increasing taxes created anger and protest against the system of privileges

THE OUTBREAK OF REBELLION -

In France of the Old Regime, the monarch did not have the power to impose taxes on his will alone → he had to call a meeting of the Estates general which would then pass his proposals for proposing new taxes → general estate is the political body to which the three estates sent their representatives → only a monarch can call a meeting of this body → called for the last time in the year 1614

5th May 1789 - Louis XVI called together an assembly of General Estates to pass proposals to impose new taxes → a hall in versailles was prepared to host the meeting → first and second estate sent 300 representatives each and the third estate sent 600 representatives → first and second estate seated facing each other while the third estate had to stapesnd in the back → third state represented by its educated members → peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly → their grievances and demands were listed in 40,000 letters which the representatives brought with them.

Voting in the Estate General in the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote → Louis XVI wished to continue the same practice → Members of third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole where each member has one vote → This was put forth by Rousseau in The Social Contract → When the king rejected the proposal, they walked out of the assembly in protest

20th June 1789 - Representatives of the third estate considered themselves as spokesperson for the entire nation → they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of the palace of versailles → declared themselves a National Assembly → swore not to disperse until they drafted a constitution for france that would limit the powers of the monarch → they were lead by Mirabeau and Abbe Sieyes → Mirabeau was born into a noble family but was convinced to do away with a society of feudal privilege. He delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at versailles → Abbe Sieyes originally a priest wrote an influential pamphlet called ‘What is the Third Estate?’

National Assembly was busy drafting the constitution → Left of versailles in turmoil → severe winter resulted in bad harvest → bakers exploited situation and hoarded supplies → women stormed into bakery after spending long hours in bakery queue → at the same time, the king ordered troops to move into paris

14th July 1789 - Agitated Crowd stampeded and destroyed Bastille → in the countryside rumours spread that the lords of the manor had hired bands of brigands to destroy ripe crops → peasants of several districts seized pitchforks and hoes and attacked chateaux → looted hoarded grain and burnt documents containing records of manorial dues → large number of nobles fled from their houses and migrated to nearby countries

Louis XVI accorded recognition to the National Assembly → accepted the principle that his powers from now on would be checked by a constitution

4th August 1789 - Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes → members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges → tithes were abolished and land owned by the church was confiscated → the government acquired assets worth more than 2 billion livres

2.1 FRANCE BECOMES A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

National assemble completed the draft of the constitution in 1971 → its main objective was to limit the powers of the monarchy →the powers instead of being handed over to one person was now divided between multiple institutions → legislature, executive and judiciary → This made france a constitutional monarchy

REFER TO FIGURE 7 - POLITICAL SYSTEM UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1791

The constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the national assembly which is indirectly elected → citizens vote for a group of electors → in turn choose the assembly.

Not all people had the right to vote → only men above the 25 years who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourers wage were given status as active citizens → all remaining men and women were classed as passive citizens → to qualify as elector then as a member of the assembly → a man had to belong in the highest highest bracket of taxpayers.

The constitution began with the declaration of Rights of a Man and Citizen → right to life, right to speech, right to opinions, equality before law → established as natural and inalienable laws → belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away → duty of the state to protect each citizens rights

FRANCE ABOLISHES MONARCHY AND BECOMES A REPUBLIC

Louis XVI had signed the constitution → he entered into secret negotiations with the king of Prussia → rulers of neighbouring countries were worried about the developments made in france → planned to send troops to put down events that had been taking place since the summer of 1789 → National Assembly votes in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria → thousands of volunteers from the provinces wanted to join the army → viewed this as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all over europe → sang Marseillaise by Roget de L’Isle → sang for the first time as volunteers marched from marseilles and marched into paris → marseillaise is now the national anthem of france.

Revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people → while men were fighting at the front, women were tasked with earning a living and looking after their families → large sections of the population believed that the revolution needed to be carried further → constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to richer sections of the society → political clubs became an important point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own form of action → most successful of these clubs were the Jacobin → got its name from former convent of St Jacob in Paris → women who were also active formed their own clubs

Members of Jacobin club belonged to the less prosperous sections of the society → small shopkeepers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, servants and daily wage workers → their leader was Maximilian Robespierre → large group of jacobins decided to wear long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers → set themselves apart from fashionable sections who wore knee breeches → proclaimed end of power wielded by the wearers of knee breeches → Jacobins came to be known as sans-culottes legit meaning ‘those without knee breeches’ → in addition some wore the red cap that symbolised liberty → women however were not allowed to do so.

10th August 1792 - Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians angered by the short supplies and high prices of food → they stormed the palace of the tuileries → massacred the kings guards → held the king hostage for several hours → the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family → elections were held → then on all men above the age of 21 regardless of wealth were allowed to vote

The newly elected assembly was known as the Convention.

21st September 1792 - France abolished the monarchy and declared itself a republic → republic is a form of government where the people elect the government including the head of the government → there is no hereditary monarchy

21st January 1793 - Louis XVI was sentenced to death by court on the charge of treason → he was executed publicly at the Palace la concorde → the queen marie antoinette faced the same fate shortly after.

3.1 THE REIGN OF TERROR

Period from 1973-94 is referred to as the reign of terror → robespierre followed strict control of punishment → all ‘enemies’ of the republic - ex-nobles, clergy, members of other political parties, members of his own political parties who did agree with his methods → they were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal → if found guilty they were ‘guillotined’ → the guillotine is a device with two long poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded → named after Dr. Guillotin who invented it.

Robespierre’s government issued laws placing a maximum amount on wages and prices → meat and bread were rationed → peasants were forced to transport their grains to cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government → use of more expensive white flour was forbidden → all citizens were forced to eat d’egalite (equality bread) a loaf made up of wholewheat → equality was also sought to be practised from forms of speech and address → instead of tradition Monsieur (sir) and Madame (ma’am) all French men and women were to be called citoyen and citoyenne (citizen) → churches were shut down down and their buildings converted into barracks and offices.

Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand moderation → convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the guillotine.

3.2 A DIRECTORY RULES FRANCE

Fall of Jacobin Government allowed wealthier middle class to seize power → A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote of non-properties sections of society → it provided 2 legislative councils → then appointed a directory → an executive made up of five members → safeguard against concentration of a one-man power as under jacobins → directors often clashed with the legislative councils → then sought to dismiss them → political instability paved way for the rise of a military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte.