Ultimate AP BIO Unit 2 Review

(control center/brain of cell)

Nucleus- store cell's genetic info and control cell activities

Protein Factory

Rough ER- synthesizes proteins with the help of ribosomes. made up of cisternae sacs ad tubules that have ribosomes

Lipid Lab

Synthesize lipids and detoxifies certain chemicals. Made up of tubules

UPS

Golgi apparatus- modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for delivery around the cell or out of the cell. As protein goes through golgi the protein will be folded into different shape and things can be added like lipids and carbohydrates. Cis side faces toward ER to receive vesicles and trans side expels vesicles.

Solar Panels

Chloroplasts- Converts sunlight to chemical energy through photosynthesis. green from chlorophyll. Found in plants only

Energy generator

Produce energy (ATP) through cellular respiration. covert unusable energy into usuable energy. Double membrane, with own DNA and ribosomes. Inner membrane is highly folded into cristae which increase SA

Garbage disposal and recycling center

Lysosomes- Breaks down waste material and cellular debris, can also be used to break down and recycle material so it can be used in the cell. Break down using hydrolytic enzymes. phagocytosis=engulf

Detox Units/ chemical cleansers

Peroxisomes- Breaks down fatty acids and detoxifies harmful substances. They can involved in the synthesis pf plasmalogens, a type of phospholipid needed to create components of cell membrane. They are necessary for digestion and absorption of fats in the small intestines. MAIN ROLE IS TO BREAK DOWN THING THAT ARE HARMFUL LIKE H2O2 INTO SAFE PRODUCTS LIKE WATER AND OXYGEN. lot of them in liver

Assembly like/ protein blocks

ribosomes- Synthesize proteins from amino acid. synthesize protains by translating mRNA into polypetide chains. If ribsome is a free/floating around int he cytoplasm then it will make proteins for inside the cell but is attached to ER it'll make proteins for secretion of membrane insertion (organelles)

Support framework

Cytoskeleton- provides structural support and aids in cell movement - network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. Cell shape, muscle contraction and cell movement (microfilaments). Intermediate filaments (mechanical support and anchor organelles. Microtubules serve as tracks for the movement of organelles and vesicles. (cilia and flagella)

Border patrol

plasma membrane- regulate what enters and exits the cell

Storage Units

Vacuoles- stores nutrients, water, and waste. Large central vacuoles are used in plant cells

Cell organizer

Centrosomes/centrioles- helps in organizing microtubules and cell division

DNA packaging

Chromatin- complex of DNA and histone proteins. condense to form chromosomes during cell division and play a role in gene regulation

Ribsome og factory

Nucleolus- ribosomal RNA is synthesized and combined with proteins to form ribosome subunits

Blueprints

DNA- carris genetic instructions for making proteins and directing all cellular activities

Gateway to brain

Nuclear pores- large protein complexes embedded in nuclear envelope that regulate the transport of molecules in and out of nucleus

fondant

nuclear envelope- separate intracellular and extracellular it is a double membrane that surrounds nucleus. It is continuous with the ER so that ribosomes can flow right to ER

The Great wall (plants)

cell wall- very rigid and used for structure. only in plants

cillia

respatory system has cillia. it helps trap particle you inhale and expel them when you cough

flagellum

sperm cells have them. found in bacteria as well. aid in movement

how to calculate SA

square the side then multiple by the faces
ex: a 2x2x2 square will be 4x 6=24 as its SA

what does a high SA:V ratio help with

take in oxygen, glucose, amino acids and kick out waste.

how to calculate V

length x width x height

what increases more with larger shapes SA or V

V because the larger the item with increase 9 times because you're multiplying by three sides instead of two. the SA will be 3 times as big

Why do humans need specialized systems vs prokaryotes

Humans are much larger and more complex than something like bacteria so they have adapted to have specilized exchange surfaces like alveoli that allow for a greater up take of oxygen in the lungs, it increases SA without increasing V. In the intestines we have villi that allow for absorption of nutrients. Bacteria are tiny so they can rely on diffusion across their surface for everything they need.

What increases diffusion of molecules

size. diffusion takes traveling 1 um in a bacteria but could take have to travel 5 cm in a human which is 50,000 times more. This is why diffusion is not the main form of transport. The body instead uses transport systems like blood vessels which take materials around organs so they don't need to travel as far by themself

whats the endosymbiotic theory

. The theory suggests that these organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, were once free-living prokaryotes that became part of a host cell through a process called endosymbiosis.

whats proof of endosymbiotic theory

mitochondria and chloroplast aerobic and are engulfed by an anerobic cell then they mutually benefited off each other so they developed together. both. make their own dna (circular-plasmid). both have ribosomes= make their own proteins. both divided by binary fission. both have double membrane.

what does the membrane have

proteins, cholesterol, carbohydrates, and phospholipids

What is a theory?

•A set of related hypotheses that have been tested and confirmed many times by many scientists.

what's cell theory

all living organism are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function, all cells come from pre-existing cells

exceptions to cell theory

muscle cells: multinucleated, very long (not box like)
fungal hyphae: very large, multinucleated chitin cell wall, Amoebae- single cell capable of all life process

What functions do all living organisms carry out (uni and multi)

1)obtain and use materials
- metabolism: nutrition
2) responds to its environment (stimulus)
3) Maintain internal balance (homeostasis)
4) grow and develop
5) reproduce
movement
6) based on genetic code
7)evolve

do cells grow indefinitely

No if a cells get to large nutrient and waste control get difficult so it divides (mitosis and meosis)

what does surface area determine

rate at which things are used (cell membrane-more of it= higher SA)

volume determines what

amount of metabolism in cytoplasm (cytoplasm= more volume)

Intercellular Junctions

Plants- plasmodestmata
Animals- Tigh junctions-hold cells togther tightly enough to block tansport of substances through intercellular space
desmosomes- rivet cells togeth into strong sheets but permit substances to pass freely through intercelllular
gap junctions- specialized for material transport between the cytoplasm od adjacent cells

vacuoles

membrane bound sacs- storage for food, wastes, toxins, water in plants. increase SA:V allows rigidity. Enclosed by membrane called TONOPLAST

glyoxysomes

found only in plants. lipids converted to carbs for growth

proteasome

4 rings of protein subunits; 2 outer alpha rings and 3 inner beta rings. Remove abnormal or misfolded proteins. cellular differentiation

electrical gradient

because there are pumps meant for only certain ions that means that there will be an electrical imbalance (one positive and one negative side)

Selective Permeability

A property of the cell membrane that allows certain molecules to pass more easily than others. Small, nonpolar molecules (e.g., O₂, CO₂) can move through freely, while larger, polar, or charged molecules (e.g., ions, water) require assistance.

Passive Transport

The movement of molecules across the cell membrane without energy input, as molecules move from areas of high concentration to low concentration (down their gradient). Examples include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Diffusion

A type of passive transport where molecules move from an area of high concentration to low concentration due to random motion. It requires no energy and continues until equilibrium is reached.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from a region of low solute concentration to high solute concentration until balance is achieved.

Facilitated Diffusion

A passive transport process in which molecules move down their concentration gradient through specialized proteins in the membrane. Transport proteins like channels or carriers assist substances such as ions, water, and glucose.

Channel Proteins

Proteins that form a hydrophilic channel through the membrane, allowing certain ions or molecules to pass. Some channels, like aquaporins, are specific to water, and many are gated, only opening in response to specific stimuli.

Carrier Proteins

Proteins that undergo a change in shape to transport molecules across the membrane. These proteins are selective, allowing only certain substances to pass by binding and changing conformation.

Active Transport

The movement of molecules against their concentration gradient (from low to high concentration) that requires energy, usually in the form of ATP. Active transport maintains concentrations of ions and molecules necessary for cell function.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A type of active transport that moves 3 Na⁺ ions out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions into the cell, creating a net positive charge outside the cell. This pump is essential for maintaining the cell's electrochemical gradient.

Membrane Potential

The electrical charge difference across a cell membrane due to unequal distribution of ions. The inside of the cell is usually more negative compared to the outside, creating an electrochemical gradient that stores energy.

Proton Pump

An active transport protein that moves hydrogen ions (H⁺) across the membrane, generating a proton gradient. This gradient can then be used for other cellular processes, such as ATP production in plants, fungi, and bacteria.

Cotransport

A type of active transport where the movement of one substance down its concentration gradient drives the movement of another substance against its gradient. For example, plants use H⁺ gradients to import sugars like sucrose.

Exocytosis

A form of bulk transport where vesicles within the cell fuse with the membrane and release their contents outside the cell. This process is crucial for secretion of substances like hormones and neurotransmitters.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells take in large molecules by engulfing them in vesicles formed from the cell membrane. Types of endocytosis include phagocytosis (cell 'eating') and pinocytosis (cell 'drinking').

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis where a cell engulfs large particles, such as bacteria or debris, into a vacuole, which then fuses with a lysosome to digest the contents.

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules into small vesicles. This process is nonspecific and helps the cell absorb fluids and nutrients.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

A specific type of endocytosis where receptor proteins on the cell membrane bind to specific molecules, causing them to cluster into coated vesicles for uptake into the cell.

Hydrophilic Head

The Hydrophilic heads attract water into the membrane and are then propelled away by the hydrophobic tails

Hydrophobic Tails

Hydrophobic tails are part of phospholipid molecules that make up cellular membranes. They are 'water-fearing' and tend not to interact with water if possible.

Amphipathic

(of a molecule, especially a protein) having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts.

Selective Permeability

The ability of membranes to regulate the substances that enter and exit

Fluid

Membrane is held together by weak hydrophobic interactions can therefore move and shift (temperature affects mobility)

Cholesterol

Helps maintain fluidity at high and low temperatures (High temperature makes more movement and Cold Temperatures make little to no Movement)

Integral Proteins

Proteins embedded into the lipid bilayer

They are Amphipathic

Peripheral Proteins

Proteins that are NOT imbedded into the bilayer (loosely bonded to the surface)

Glycolipids

Carbohydrates bonded to lipids

Glycoproteins

Carbohydrates bonded to proteins

Phospholipid

A type of lipid that makes up the cell membrane, with a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and two hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. These help form the structure of the cell membrane, like a two-sided sticker where one side loves water and the other avoids it.

Hydrophilic

Describes something that is attracted to water. The hydrophilic heads of phospholipids face the watery environments both inside and outside the cell.

Hydrophobic

Describes something that avoids or repels water. The hydrophobic tails of phospholipids hide inside the membrane, away from water.

Plasma Membrane

The outer boundary of a cell that controls what enters and leaves. It acts like a protective bubble around the cell, regulating the passage of substances.

Bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids that makes up the cell membrane, where the hydrophilic heads face outwards towards water and the hydrophobic tails face inward away from water. This structure is like two rows of people holding hands, with heads facing the water and tails hidden inside.

Selective Permeability

The property of the cell membrane that allows it to control what enters and exits the cell, letting some things through while blocking others, much like a picky gatekeeper.

Fluid Mosaic Model

A model that describes the cell membrane as flexible (fluid) and made of many different parts, like proteins and carbohydrates (mosaic). The components move around within the membrane, keeping it functional and dynamic.

Cholesterol (in Membranes)

A type of lipid in the cell membrane that helps keep it stable across different temperatures, preventing it from becoming too stiff when cold or too loose when hot.

Integral Proteins

Proteins that span the entire cell membrane, acting like tunnels or gates to help substances move in and out of the cell.

Peripheral Proteins

Proteins that sit on the surface of the membrane, loosely attached and not embedded in it. They're like toppings on a pizza, playing a role in signaling and support.

Glycolipids

Carbohydrates attached to lipids in the membrane, helping cells recognize each other, like a name tag for the cell.

Glycoproteins

Carbohydrates attached to proteins in the membrane, also helping with cell recognition and communication, acting like special labels between cells.

Cell Wall (in Plants)

A tough outer layer found in plant cells that gives them shape, structure, and protection. It's like a rigid box around the cell that helps control how much water it takes in.

Cellulose

A strong material that makes up the plant cell wall. It provides the cell wall's strength, much like the bricks in a wall give it structure.

Plasmodesmata

Small channels in plant cell walls that connect neighboring cells, allowing them to communicate and share materials, like tiny tunnels between houses.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Tails

The fatty acid chains in some phospholipids that have bends or kinks, preventing them from packing tightly together. This helps keep the cell membrane fluid, especially in cold temperatures.

Aquaporins

Specialized proteins in the cell membrane that allow water to pass through quickly, like water slides that help water molecules move in and out of the cell.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from an area where there are many of them to an area where there are fewer, like people spreading out in an empty room. This happens naturally to balance concentrations.

Osmosis

The movement of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to low water concentration. It's like water moving through a sponge to balance out the levels on both sides of the membrane.

Phospholipid

A type of lipid that makes up the cell membrane, with a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and two hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. These help form the structure of the cell membrane, like a two-sided sticker where one side loves water and the other avoids it.

Hydrophilic

Describes something that is attracted to water. The hydrophilic heads of phospholipids face the watery environments both inside and outside the cell.

Hydrophobic

Describes something that avoids or repels water. The hydrophobic tails of phospholipids hide inside the membrane, away from water.

Plasma Membrane

The outer boundary of a cell that controls what enters and leaves. It acts like a protective bubble around the cell, regulating the passage of substances.

Amphipathic

Refers to a molecule that has both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-fearing) parts. Phospholipids are amphipathic because they have a head that likes water and tails that avoid it.

Bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids that makes up the cell membrane, where the hydrophilic heads face outwards towards water and the hydrophobic tails face inward away from water. This structure is like two rows of people holding hands, with heads facing the water and tails hidden inside.

Selective Permeability

The property of the cell membrane that allows it to control what enters and exits the cell, letting some things through while blocking others, much like a picky gatekeeper.

Fluid Mosaic Model

A model that describes the cell membrane as flexible (fluid) and made of many different parts, like proteins and carbohydrates (mosaic). The components move around within the membrane, keeping it functional and dynamic.

Cholesterol (in Membranes)

A type of lipid in the cell membrane that helps keep it stable across different temperatures, preventing it from becoming too stiff when cold or too loose when hot.

Integral Proteins

Proteins that span the entire cell membrane, acting like tunnels or gates to help substances move in and out of the cell.

Peripheral Proteins

Proteins that sit on the surface of the membrane, loosely attached and not embedded in it. They're like toppings on a pizza, playing a role in signaling and support.

Glycolipids

Carbohydrates attached to lipids in the membrane, helping cells recognize each other, like a name tag for the cell.