SAP Exam

Oral stage

**Age:** Birth - 1½

**Erogenous Zone:** mouth

**Major Development:**Weaning off breast milk or bottle 

**Adult Fixation:** drinking, eating, smoking, nail biting  

Anal stage

**Age:**1½ - 3

**Erogenous Zone:** anus

**Major Development:**Toilet training, bowel and bladder control

**Adult Fixation:** Orderliness or messiness 

Phalllic

**Age:**3-6

**Erogenous Zone:**genitals

**Major Development:**Resolving Oedipus Complex

**Adult Fixation:**Sexual dysfunction 

Latency Stage

**Age:**6-Puberty

**Erogenous Zone:**repressed sexuality

**Major Development:**Developing social + intellectual skills, and defense mechanisms 

**Adult Fixation:**none

Genital stage

**Age:**Puberty Onward

**Erogenous Zone:**Genitals 

**Major Development:**sexual reawakening/maturity, source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family 

**Adult Fixation:**If other stages completed successfully, individual should now be well-balanced

__Conscious Mind__

Information that we are aware of, performs thinking when we take in new information.

__Unconscious Mind__

Information in our mind that we are unaware of, holds our thoughts, feelings + memories.

__**Behaviourism**__

John Watson (1878-1958)

* In order to be scientific, psychology should only study what can be observed.
* Since the mind itself cannot be observed, behaviour was the only available source of data.
* Studies how individuals react to the environment.
* Believe that psychologists can predict/control/modify human behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place.

__**Classical Conditioning**__

__**Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)**__

* Once neutral stimulus comes to produce a particular response after pairings with a conditioned stimulus
* Learning to transfer a natural response from one stimulus to another 
* Involuntary reflexive behaviour  

__Conditioning__

Acquiring patterns of behaviour in the presence of an environmental stimulus 

__Unconditioned Stimulus__

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response

__Unconditioned Response__

Natural, automatic, unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus 

__Conditioned Stimulus__

An originally neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

__Conditioned Response__

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus 

__**Operant Conditioning**__

__**B.F. Skinner - (1904-1990)**__

* **Uses rewards and punishment to achieve desired behaviour** 
* Voluntary behavioural outcomes 
* If you find the motive of behaviour you have the power to control/change behaviour.
* Use of rewards and punishment can influence behaviour
* Rewards can be more effective compared to punishments because rewards indicate what behaviour is desired, whereas punishments only indicate what not to do

__Positive reinforcement__

event/situation that increases likelihood certain behaviour will recur

__Negative reinforcement__

event/situation that decreases likelihood certain behaviour will recur

__Humanistic Psychology__

Carl Rogers + Abraham Maslow 

* Argued that humans are not helplessly controlled by unconscious or environmental forces
* We have free will, goals, aspirations and other positive motives which should be studied

__Carl Jung:__

__Personal Unconscious__

unique to the individual

__Collective Unconscious__

memories of ancestors

personality divided into 4 psychological functions

__sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling__

__Introvert__

* Use psychological power to look inward, emotionally self-serving 
* Don’t need many close personal relationships to give them reassurance and confidence 

__Extrovert__

* Use psychological power to look outward
* Outgoing and more comfortable in large groups of friends

__Trust vs Mistrust__

\- Infant-18 months

* Favourable outcome: faith in environment + future events 
* Unfavourable outcome: suspicion, fear of future events

__Autonomy vs shame doubt__

\- 18 months-3 years 

* Favourable outcome: sense of self control + adequacy 
* Unfavourable outcome: feelings of shame and self-doubt 

Initiative vs Guilt

- 3-5 years

* Favourable outcome: ability to initiate one's own activities 
* Unfavourable outcome: sense of guilt and inadequacy to be one's own 

__Industry vs Inferiority__

\- 5-13 years

* Favourable outcome: ability to learn how things work, understand + organize 
* Unfavourable outcome: sense of inferiority at understanding + organizing 

__Identity vs Role confusion__

\- 13-21 years

* Favourable outcome: seeing oneself as a unique + integrated individual
* Unfavourable outcome: confusion of who + what one really is  

__Intimacy vs Isolation__

\- 21-39 years

* Favourable outcome: ability to make commitments to others to love 
* Unfavourable outcome: inability to form affectionate relationships

__Generativity vs Stagnation__

\- 40-65 years

* Favourable outcome: concern for family + society in general
* Unfavourable outcome: concern for one's own self well being + prosperity  

__Integrity vs Despair__ 

- 65+

* Favourable outcome: a sense of integrity + fulfillment, willingness to face death 
* Unfavourable outcome: dissatisfaction with life, despair over prospect of death 

__**Neurosis**__

Mental distress that, unlike psychosis, does not prevent rational thought or daily functioning. It is an over exaggerated defense mechanism to fear or anxiety.

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Phobia

* anxiety about a specific object, activity, or situation, ex. spiders, enclosed spaces
* Can cause psychological reactions like increased heart rate, sweaty palms, fear 

ADD/ADHD

* Developmental disorder characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and overactivity
* Key cognitive/thinking skills slower to develop in children with ADHD

Agoraphobia

* Anxiety disorder, fear and avoid places/situations that might cause you to panic and make you feel trapped, helpless or embarrassed

OCD

* Uncontrollable, recurrent obsessions/compulsions, feels the urge to repeat over and over.
* Phases of obsessive thoughts, anxiety, compulsive behaviour and temporary relief 
* Intrusive thoughts, excessive worries, rule driven, fear of unknown/losing control 

Anorexia Nervosa

* Self-starvation/malnourishment, excessive exercise, obsessive weight loss, 
* Fear of gaining weight, distorted body perception,
* Amenorrhea (loss of menstruation)

__Bulimia Nervosa:__

* Cycles of starvation, devouring food, and purging, frequent binge episodes
* Purges can occur through laxatives, forced vomiting, or excessive exercise
* Typically a form of poor mental/emotional coping

__Binge eating disorder:__

* Frequent impulsive/uncontrollable eating at least once a week over long time
* Binges include fast eating, absence of hunger, feeling uncomfortably full after
* Feelings of no control + guilt during/after binges

__**Psychosis**__

Mental state involving the loss of contact with reality, causing the deterioration of normal social functioning. 

* Includes delusions + hallucinations

Schizophrenia

A mental disorder where one interprets reality differently, such as having hallucinations and delusions which impacts their daily functioning

Bi-Polar Disorder

* Brain disorder, unusual shifts in mood/energy/activity levels, ability to carry out day-to-day tasks.
*  Extreme- HIGHS and lows

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Manic Depression

* A long period of feeling "high," or an overly happy or outgoing mood 
* Extremely irritable mood, agitation, feeling "jumpy" or "wired."

Clinical Depression

* No one cause, biochemical imbalance in the brain, can be from life distressing events
* Negative or pessimistic view of life, long period of feeling worried or empty
* Loss of interest in activities once enjoyed

Dementia

* Deterioration of the brain
* Affects all brain functioning: thought processes, judgment, reasoning, memory, communication, and behaviour

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Alzetheimers

* Type of dementia 
* Changes in memory, communication, judgment, personality, overall cognitive functioning

__**Defense Mechanisms**__

* Behaviour patterns we use to protect ourselves, positive or negative solutions to problem
* Can be self aware of using defense mechanisms to maintain a healthy mental state
* Many don’t realize they’re relying on defense mechanisms, can lose touch with reality

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Repression

* blocking of unacceptable impulses from consciousness, removes traumatic experiences from conscious memory

Rationalization

* Cognitive reframing of perceptions to protect ego in the face of changing realities
* Ex. promotion one wished for and didn’t get becomes: “a dead end job for brown nosers” 

Displacement

* Redirecting thoughts/feelings/impulses from an object that causes anxiety to a safer, more acceptable one, replacing a threatening object with a less threatening one
* Ex. being angry at your boss and kicking the dog

Denial

* Refusal to accept reality and to act as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist

Reaction Formation

* Converting wishes/impulses that are perceived to be dangerous into their opposites
* Finding reasons why others shouldn’t do something that we’ve done
* ex. a woman who is furious at her child + wishes harm becomes overly protective

Projection

* The attribution of ones undesired impulses onto another
* E.g., an angry spouse accuses their partner of hostility “It’s not my fault, you started it”

Regression

* Is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of an unacceptable impulse
* Ex. overwhelmed child becomes clingy, begin sucking their thumb or wetting their bed

Fantasy/Daydreaming

* The channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires into imagination
* Protects self-esteem by imagining success in areas where expectations are not being met

Sublimation

* The channeling of unacceptable impulses into more acceptable outlets
* E.g., expressing anger in a hockey fight rather than street fight

Compensation

* Psychologically balancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other arenas
* The “I'm not a fighter, I'm a lover” philosophy

Compartmentalization

* Separating parts of the self from awareness + behaving one set has separate sets of values

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Undoing

* Is the attempt to take back behaviour or thoughts that are unacceptable
* Ex. excessively praising someone after having insulted them

Functionalism - William James (1842-1910)

* **Argued that consciousness cannot be broken down into elements.** 
* Ongoing conscious experience and the functions of mental processes. 
* **Aims to find meaning and purpose in what we experience**
* **Mental state is more a matter of what it does, not what it is made of.** 


* Focused on how things worked together
* Examined how the mind functions in different environments
* Used objective techniques to explore memories and emotions 

Structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

* Uncovers the structure of consciousness by breaking down mental processes into most basic components
* Examined the capabilities of different parts of the mind
* Used introspection to study feelings and sensations

__Alfred Adler__

* Believed power was the key to understanding personality, people motivated by power
* people were aware of their goals and values that guided them
* Maladjusted people choose to pursue goals that are useless to themselves and society 
* Maladjusted lack self-esteem, would pursue better goals if they gained self-esteem
* Believed birth order was important to shape personality 

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Inferiority complex

* low self-esteem, is a feeling of intense insecurity, inferiority or of not measuring up
* People feel inferior at some point + compensate by seeking sense of power

__Types of Power:__

Fear/Intimidation

– having the ability to scare or threaten people

__Types of Power:__

Authority

– having privileges and dominance

__Types of Power:__

Superiority

– being better than others

__Types of Power:__

Demands

– ability to express needs

__Types of Power:__

Independence

– no needing to rely on others

__Types of Power:__

Money

– having mobility in society 

__Types of Power:__

Control

– having power in a situation

Parts and Lobes of the Brain- Neuroscience

__**Frontal Lobe**__ 

Conscious thought, behaviour, emotion, planning, personality, organising, problem solving. Most uniquely human of all the brain structures. Front of brain.

__**Parietal Lobe**__

Integrations of sensory information from primary sensory areas --perceptions, arithmetic, spelling, manipulations of objects. Middle top of brain.

__**Temporal Lobe**__ 

Senses of smell & sound, as well as processing of complex stimuli like faces & scenes, memory, understanding language. Temple region.

__**Occipital Lobe**__ 

Sense of sight. Extreme back of brain.

__Cerebrum__

Carries out higher thought processes involved with language, learning, memory, & voluntary body movements. 

__Cerebellum__

Responsible for balance & coordination.

__Brainstem__

Relays signals between the brain & spinal cord.

__Pons__

Relays signals between cerebrum and cerebellum. Helps control breathing rate.

__Medulla Oblongata__ 

Relays signals between the brain & the spinal cord, controls blood pressure, heart rate, & breathing rate.

__Amygdala__

the integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation.

__hippocampus__

complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe. It has a major role in learning and memory

__hypothalamus__

acts as your body's smart control coordinating center.

\-main function is keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis.

Right brain

Creative + Intuitive hemisphere of the brain, controls the left side of the body

* creative, innovative, imaginative, holistic, arts and music.

Left brain 

Logical + Analytical hemisphere of the brain, controls the right side of the body

* analytic, thought, logic, rational, language, science and math

Perception

The process that allows us to select, organize & interpret sensory signals in the brain.

Id

-Born with it, allows us as newborns to get our basic needs met

* It is the instinctual part of the mind. Our pleasure principle. Food, sleep, and sex
* Doesn't care about reality or the needs of anyone else, only its own satisfaction
* When the id wants something, nothing else is important

Ego

* Develops within next three years of life as child interacts more and more with the world
* Reality principle, understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes being impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run.
* Strongest personality so that it can satisfy the needs of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of every situation. 
* Mediator between the Id and Superego.

The Superego

* Develops by age 5 
* Moral part of us, our conscience as it dictates our belief of right and wrong 
* Develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our caregivers

**Cultural Relativism(Franz Boas)**

\-Cannot compare 2 cultures because each culture has its own internal rules that must be accepted

\-People see other cultures through the lens of their own culture

\-a response to cultural evolutionism (the theory that all cultures evolve from “savage” to “barbarian” to “civilized”) --which assumed an ethnocentric view that 19th century European culture was superior to all others

Ethnocentrism

believing that one’s own culture is superior to all other

**Functional Theory (Bronisław Malinowski)**

* Believed that social institutions (school, peers, religion) work together to provide a stable environment
* The idea that every belief, action, or relationship in a culture functions to meet the needs of individuals
* Functionalists would say that the medical element of culture (doctors) exist to help people 

**Cultural Materialism (Marvin Harris)**

* Materials or conditions within the environment (climate, food, geography, supply) influence how a __culture develops__, creating the ideas and ideology of a culture
* Society develops on a trial & error basis

**Culture is** __**learned**__

**-It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious.** 

**-We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media.** 

**Culture is** __**shared**__

**-Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same).** 

**Culture is based on** __**symbols**__

**-A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use.**

**- (Ex. Language, money and art)** 

**Culture is** __**integrated**__

**-All aspects of a culture are interrelated to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.**

**Culture is** __**dynamic**__

**-This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols**

__Primatology__

* The study of the anatomy and behaviours of living primates, investigating what makes humans similar and different.
* Observe primates both in their natural habitats and in laboratory’s to study physical and complex social behaviours and relationships

__Primatologists:__

Dian Fossey

* Analyzed mountain gorilla behavior and lifestyle in Rwanda, Africa
* Observed that gorillas have a highly structured social system and hierarchy
* Studies were funded by The Leakey Family
* Died in Rwanda (was found murdered in cabin)