Oral stage
Age: Birth - 1½
Erogenous Zone: mouth
**Major Development:**Weaning off breast milk or bottle
Adult Fixation: drinking, eating, smoking, nail biting
Anal stage
**Age:**1½ - 3
Erogenous Zone: anus
**Major Development:**Toilet training, bowel and bladder control
Adult Fixation: Orderliness or messiness
Phalllic
**Age:**3-6
**Erogenous Zone:**genitals
**Major Development:**Resolving Oedipus Complex
**Adult Fixation:**Sexual dysfunction
Latency Stage
**Age:**6-Puberty
**Erogenous Zone:**repressed sexuality
**Major Development:**Developing social + intellectual skills, and defense mechanisms
**Adult Fixation:**none
Genital stage
**Age:**Puberty Onward
**Erogenous Zone:**Genitals
**Major Development:**sexual reawakening/maturity, source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family
**Adult Fixation:**If other stages completed successfully, individual should now be well-balanced
Conscious Mind
Information that we are aware of, performs thinking when we take in new information.
Unconscious Mind
Information in our mind that we are unaware of, holds our thoughts, feelings + memories.
Behaviourism
John Watson (1878-1958)
In order to be scientific, psychology should only study what can be observed.
Since the mind itself cannot be observed, behaviour was the only available source of data.
Studies how individuals react to the environment.
Believe that psychologists can predict/control/modify human behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Once neutral stimulus comes to produce a particular response after pairings with a conditioned stimulus
Learning to transfer a natural response from one stimulus to another
Involuntary reflexive behaviour
Conditioning
Acquiring patterns of behaviour in the presence of an environmental stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response
Unconditioned Response
Natural, automatic, unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
An originally neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Response
The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner - (1904-1990)
Uses rewards and punishment to achieve desired behaviour
Voluntary behavioural outcomes
If you find the motive of behaviour you have the power to control/change behaviour.
Use of rewards and punishment can influence behaviour
Rewards can be more effective compared to punishments because rewards indicate what behaviour is desired, whereas punishments only indicate what not to do
Positive reinforcement
event/situation that increases likelihood certain behaviour will recur
Negative reinforcement
event/situation that decreases likelihood certain behaviour will recur
Humanistic Psychology
Carl Rogers + Abraham Maslow
Argued that humans are not helplessly controlled by unconscious or environmental forces
We have free will, goals, aspirations and other positive motives which should be studied
Carl Jung:
Personal Unconscious
unique to the individual
Collective Unconscious
memories of ancestors
personality divided into 4 psychological functions
sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling
Introvert
Use psychological power to look inward, emotionally self-serving
Don’t need many close personal relationships to give them reassurance and confidence
Extrovert
Use psychological power to look outward
Outgoing and more comfortable in large groups of friends
Trust vs Mistrust
- Infant-18 months
Favourable outcome: faith in environment + future events
Unfavourable outcome: suspicion, fear of future events
Autonomy vs shame doubt
- 18 months-3 years
Favourable outcome: sense of self control + adequacy
Unfavourable outcome: feelings of shame and self-doubt
Initiative vs Guilt
3-5 years
Favourable outcome: ability to initiate one's own activities
Unfavourable outcome: sense of guilt and inadequacy to be one's own
Industry vs Inferiority
- 5-13 years
Favourable outcome: ability to learn how things work, understand + organize
Unfavourable outcome: sense of inferiority at understanding + organizing
Identity vs Role confusion
- 13-21 years
Favourable outcome: seeing oneself as a unique + integrated individual
Unfavourable outcome: confusion of who + what one really is
Intimacy vs Isolation
- 21-39 years
Favourable outcome: ability to make commitments to others to love
Unfavourable outcome: inability to form affectionate relationships
Generativity vs Stagnation
- 40-65 years
Favourable outcome: concern for family + society in general
Unfavourable outcome: concern for one's own self well being + prosperity
Integrity vs Despair
65+
Favourable outcome: a sense of integrity + fulfillment, willingness to face death
Unfavourable outcome: dissatisfaction with life, despair over prospect of death
Neurosis
Mental distress that, unlike psychosis, does not prevent rational thought or daily functioning. It is an over exaggerated defense mechanism to fear or anxiety.
Phobia
anxiety about a specific object, activity, or situation, ex. spiders, enclosed spaces
Can cause psychological reactions like increased heart rate, sweaty palms, fear
ADD/ADHD
Developmental disorder characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and overactivity
Key cognitive/thinking skills slower to develop in children with ADHD
Agoraphobia
Anxiety disorder, fear and avoid places/situations that might cause you to panic and make you feel trapped, helpless or embarrassed
OCD
Uncontrollable, recurrent obsessions/compulsions, feels the urge to repeat over and over.
Phases of obsessive thoughts, anxiety, compulsive behaviour and temporary relief
Intrusive thoughts, excessive worries, rule driven, fear of unknown/losing control
Anorexia Nervosa
Self-starvation/malnourishment, excessive exercise, obsessive weight loss,
Fear of gaining weight, distorted body perception,
Amenorrhea (loss of menstruation)
Bulimia Nervosa:
Cycles of starvation, devouring food, and purging, frequent binge episodes
Purges can occur through laxatives, forced vomiting, or excessive exercise
Typically a form of poor mental/emotional coping
Binge eating disorder:
Frequent impulsive/uncontrollable eating at least once a week over long time
Binges include fast eating, absence of hunger, feeling uncomfortably full after
Feelings of no control + guilt during/after binges
Psychosis
Mental state involving the loss of contact with reality, causing the deterioration of normal social functioning.
Includes delusions + hallucinations
Schizophrenia
A mental disorder where one interprets reality differently, such as having hallucinations and delusions which impacts their daily functioning
Bi-Polar Disorder
Brain disorder, unusual shifts in mood/energy/activity levels, ability to carry out day-to-day tasks.
Extreme- HIGHS and lows
Manic Depression
A long period of feeling "high," or an overly happy or outgoing mood
Extremely irritable mood, agitation, feeling "jumpy" or "wired."
Clinical Depression
No one cause, biochemical imbalance in the brain, can be from life distressing events
Negative or pessimistic view of life, long period of feeling worried or empty
Loss of interest in activities once enjoyed
Dementia
Deterioration of the brain
Affects all brain functioning: thought processes, judgment, reasoning, memory, communication, and behaviour
Alzetheimers
Type of dementia
Changes in memory, communication, judgment, personality, overall cognitive functioning
Defense Mechanisms
Behaviour patterns we use to protect ourselves, positive or negative solutions to problem
Can be self aware of using defense mechanisms to maintain a healthy mental state
Many don’t realize they’re relying on defense mechanisms, can lose touch with reality
Repression
blocking of unacceptable impulses from consciousness, removes traumatic experiences from conscious memory
Rationalization
Cognitive reframing of perceptions to protect ego in the face of changing realities
Ex. promotion one wished for and didn’t get becomes: “a dead end job for brown nosers”
Displacement
Redirecting thoughts/feelings/impulses from an object that causes anxiety to a safer, more acceptable one, replacing a threatening object with a less threatening one
Ex. being angry at your boss and kicking the dog
Denial
Refusal to accept reality and to act as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist
Reaction Formation
Converting wishes/impulses that are perceived to be dangerous into their opposites
Finding reasons why others shouldn’t do something that we’ve done
ex. a woman who is furious at her child + wishes harm becomes overly protective
Projection
The attribution of ones undesired impulses onto another
E.g., an angry spouse accuses their partner of hostility “It’s not my fault, you started it”
Regression
Is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of an unacceptable impulse
Ex. overwhelmed child becomes clingy, begin sucking their thumb or wetting their bed
Fantasy/Daydreaming
The channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires into imagination
Protects self-esteem by imagining success in areas where expectations are not being met
Sublimation
The channeling of unacceptable impulses into more acceptable outlets
E.g., expressing anger in a hockey fight rather than street fight
Compensation
Psychologically balancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other arenas
The “I'm not a fighter, I'm a lover” philosophy
Compartmentalization
Separating parts of the self from awareness + behaving one set has separate sets of values
Undoing
Is the attempt to take back behaviour or thoughts that are unacceptable
Ex. excessively praising someone after having insulted them
Functionalism - William James (1842-1910)
Argued that consciousness cannot be broken down into elements.
Ongoing conscious experience and the functions of mental processes.
Aims to find meaning and purpose in what we experience
Mental state is more a matter of what it does, not what it is made of.
Focused on how things worked together
Examined how the mind functions in different environments
Used objective techniques to explore memories and emotions
Structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Uncovers the structure of consciousness by breaking down mental processes into most basic components
Examined the capabilities of different parts of the mind
Used introspection to study feelings and sensations
Alfred Adler
Believed power was the key to understanding personality, people motivated by power
people were aware of their goals and values that guided them
Maladjusted people choose to pursue goals that are useless to themselves and society
Maladjusted lack self-esteem, would pursue better goals if they gained self-esteem
Believed birth order was important to shape personality
Inferiority complex
low self-esteem, is a feeling of intense insecurity, inferiority or of not measuring up
People feel inferior at some point + compensate by seeking sense of power
Types of Power:
Fear/Intimidation
– having the ability to scare or threaten people
Types of Power:
Authority
– having privileges and dominance
Types of Power:
Superiority
– being better than others
Types of Power:
Demands
– ability to express needs
Types of Power:
Independence
– no needing to rely on others
Types of Power:
Money
– having mobility in society
Types of Power:
Control
– having power in a situation
Parts and Lobes of the Brain- Neuroscience
Frontal Lobe
Conscious thought, behaviour, emotion, planning, personality, organising, problem solving. Most uniquely human of all the brain structures. Front of brain.
Parietal Lobe
Integrations of sensory information from primary sensory areas --perceptions, arithmetic, spelling, manipulations of objects. Middle top of brain.
Temporal Lobe
Senses of smell & sound, as well as processing of complex stimuli like faces & scenes, memory, understanding language. Temple region.
Occipital Lobe
Sense of sight. Extreme back of brain.
Cerebrum
Carries out higher thought processes involved with language, learning, memory, & voluntary body movements.
Cerebellum
Responsible for balance & coordination.
Brainstem
Relays signals between the brain & spinal cord.
Pons
Relays signals between cerebrum and cerebellum. Helps control breathing rate.
Medulla Oblongata
Relays signals between the brain & the spinal cord, controls blood pressure, heart rate, & breathing rate.
Amygdala
the integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation.
hippocampus
complex brain structure embedded deep into temporal lobe. It has a major role in learning and memory
hypothalamus
acts as your body's smart control coordinating center.
-main function is keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis.
Right brain
Creative + Intuitive hemisphere of the brain, controls the left side of the body
creative, innovative, imaginative, holistic, arts and music.
Left brain
Logical + Analytical hemisphere of the brain, controls the right side of the body
analytic, thought, logic, rational, language, science and math
Perception
The process that allows us to select, organize & interpret sensory signals in the brain.
Id
-Born with it, allows us as newborns to get our basic needs met
It is the instinctual part of the mind. Our pleasure principle. Food, sleep, and sex
Doesn't care about reality or the needs of anyone else, only its own satisfaction
When the id wants something, nothing else is important
Ego
Develops within next three years of life as child interacts more and more with the world
Reality principle, understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes being impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run.
Strongest personality so that it can satisfy the needs of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of every situation.
Mediator between the Id and Superego.
The Superego
Develops by age 5
Moral part of us, our conscience as it dictates our belief of right and wrong
Develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our caregivers
Cultural Relativism(Franz Boas)
-Cannot compare 2 cultures because each culture has its own internal rules that must be accepted
-People see other cultures through the lens of their own culture
-a response to cultural evolutionism (the theory that all cultures evolve from “savage” to “barbarian” to “civilized”) --which assumed an ethnocentric view that 19th century European culture was superior to all others
Ethnocentrism
believing that one’s own culture is superior to all other
Functional Theory (Bronisław Malinowski)
Believed that social institutions (school, peers, religion) work together to provide a stable environment
The idea that every belief, action, or relationship in a culture functions to meet the needs of individuals
Functionalists would say that the medical element of culture (doctors) exist to help people
Cultural Materialism (Marvin Harris)
Materials or conditions within the environment (climate, food, geography, supply) influence how a culture develops, creating the ideas and ideology of a culture
Society develops on a trial & error basis
Culture is learned
-It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious.
-We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media.
Culture is shared
-Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same).
Culture is based on symbols
-A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use.
- (Ex. Language, money and art)
Culture is integrated
-All aspects of a culture are interrelated to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
Culture is dynamic
-This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols
Primatology
The study of the anatomy and behaviours of living primates, investigating what makes humans similar and different.
Observe primates both in their natural habitats and in laboratory’s to study physical and complex social behaviours and relationships
Primatologists:
Dian Fossey
Analyzed mountain gorilla behavior and lifestyle in Rwanda, Africa
Observed that gorillas have a highly structured social system and hierarchy
Studies were funded by The Leakey Family
Died in Rwanda (was found murdered in cabin)