Gov Exam 3

What two roles does Congress primarily serve in American government?

Congress is the principal lawmaking branch (policymaking) and the principal representative branch (representing citizens’ interests).

How does the chapter characterize the typical background of members of Congress?

A: Members tend to be older, more educated, wealthier, more likely to be white and male, and disproportionately lawyers or businesspeople compared to the general population.

Q: What is incumbency?

A: Incumbency means holding the office currently; an incumbent is someone seeking reelection.

Q: Name three major advantages incumbents have in congressional elections.

A: Name recognition, casework/constituency service (credit claiming), and access to resources (campaign funds, staff, franking).

Q: What is “casework”?

A: Assistance that members of Congress provide to constituents to help them navigate federal agencies and get individual problems solved.

Q: Define “pork barrel” spending.

A: Government funds for local projects secured by members of Congress to benefit their districts and constituents.

Q: What is the “advantages of incumbency” effect on electoral outcomes?

A: Incumbents typically win reelection at high rates due to those advantages (access to resources, visibility, constituent services).

Q: What factors can lead to an incumbent’s defeat?

A: Scandal, redistricting (gerrymandering), major political tidal waves or strong challengers, and retirement/open-seat contests.

Q: What is an “open seat” election?

A: An election in which no incumbent is running, usually more competitive.

Q: How does the chapter explain “stability and change” in Congress?

A: While membership and some institutional features persist, party realignments, demographic shifts, and institutional reforms lead to periodic change.

Q: What is bicameralism?

A: A two-chamber legislative body (the House of Representatives and the Senate in the U.S. Congress).

Q: Contrast the House and the Senate in size and procedure.

A: The House is larger (435 members), more centralized and rule-bound; the Senate is smaller (100 members), more deliberative, and gives individual senators more power (e.g., filibuster).

Q: Who is the Speaker of the House and what is their role?

A: The Speaker is the House’s presiding officer and leader of the majority party; they control the legislative agenda and committee appointments in practice.

Q: What are majority and minority leaders?

A: Party leaders in each chamber who manage and schedule party business (majority sets the agenda; minority leads opposition strategy).

Q: What are whips?

A: Party officials who count votes, persuade members to vote with the party, and ensure party discipline.

Q: How is the Senate leadership different from the House?

A: The Vice President is the formal President of the Senate (rarely presides), while the Senate Majority Leader is the de facto chief scheduler and majority spokesperson; senators have more individual independence.

Q: What are standing committees?

A: Permanent congressional committees that handle bills and oversight in specific policy areas (e.g., Appropriations, Judiciary).

Q: What are subcommittees?

A: Smaller units within standing committees that focus on narrower topics and do detailed work on legislation and oversight.

Q: What are select (special) committees?

A: Temporary committees created for specific investigations or issues, often without legislative jurisdiction.

Q: What are conference committees?

A: Joint House-Senate committees formed to reconcile differences in versions of a bill passed by both chambers.

Q: Explain the committee’s gatekeeping role.

A: Committees decide which bills move forward for consideration, shaping the legislative agenda by allowing or blocking proposals.

Q: What is the seniority system?

A: An informal rule that long-serving majority-party members typically win committee chairmanships and leadership positions.

Q: Why have committee chairs been decentralized in recent decades?

A: Reforms reduced chair authority and increased committee member influence, making committee governance more democratic.

Q: What are congressional caucuses?

A: Informal groups of members who share common interests or characteristics (e.g., ideological caucuses, demographic caucuses) that coordinate policy and strategy.

Q: What roles do congressional staff play?

A: Staff provide policy expertise, constituent services, legislative drafting, communications, and support for members and committees.

Q: What does the chapter mean by “agenda setting” in Congress?

A: Determining which issues and bills receive attention, hearings, and floor votes — influenced by leaders, committees, presidents, and events.

Q: Outline the basic steps in the lawmaking process.

A: Bill introduction → committee referral and hearings → markup and committee vote → floor debate and amendment → passage in one chamber → other chamber consideration → conference committee reconciliation → final passage → presidential signature or veto.

Q: What is “markup”?

A: A committee or subcommittee session where members amend and rewrite a bill before voting to send it to the floor.

Q: What is oversight, and why does Congress conduct it?

A: Oversight is Congress’s monitoring of the executive branch and federal programs to ensure laws are implemented properly and to investigate issues of public concern.

Q: What are common oversight tools Congress uses?

A: Hearings, investigations, budgetary controls, subpoenas, and confirmation hearings.

Q: What is the filibuster?

A: A Senate procedural tactic that permits extended debate to delay or block votes; often requires 60 votes for cloture to end.

Q: What is cloture?

A: A Senate motion that ends debate on a measure and brings it to a vote — requires 60 votes (three-fifths) in most cases.

Q: Define “unorthodox lawmaking.”

A: Procedural shortcuts and leadership-driven strategies used to pass major legislation that bypass traditional committee and floor processes (e.g., omnibus bills, reconciliation).

Q: How did the chapter explain the role of party strength in Congress?

A: Party cohesion affects legislative success; stronger parties coordinate members and votes, while weaker parties make passing legislation more difficult.

Q: What is the impact of party polarization on Congress?

A: Increased polarization narrows common ground, raises gridlock, reduces bipartisan compromise, and increases conflict over rules and norms.

Q: How do presidents attempt to influence Congress?

A: By bargaining, public appeals (going public), using the veto, offering political favors, and by directing the administration’s policy priorities.

Q: What does “going public” mean for a president?

A: Direct appeals to the public (speeches, media) to pressure Congress into supporting the president’s policy agenda.

Q: According to the chapter, how effective is presidential persuasion over Congress?

A: Presidents have some influence, especially at the margins, but cannot reliably control congressional outcomes, particularly under divided government.

Q: What is divided government and how does it affect policymaking?

A: Divided government occurs when the president is from one party and a majority in one or both chambers is from the other party; it often increases gridlock and difficulty passing major legislation.

Q: Explain the role of interest groups and lobbyists in Congress.

A: They provide information, draft legislation, mobilize constituents, offer campaign support, and try to influence lawmakers on policy and votes.

Q: What did the chapter say about the effectiveness of lobbying?

A: Lobbying can be effective, especially for well-organized groups; however, changing the status quo is hard and negative (defensive) lobbying often succeeds more than positive lobbying.

Q: What is “grassroots lobbying”?

A: Mobilizing citizens at the local level (letters, calls, social media) to pressure representatives on issues

Q: What are PACs and how do they influence Congress?

A: Political Action Committees raise and spend money to elect/defeat candidates, often supporting incumbents and aligned party members.

Q: What does the chapter mean by “Congressional elections: who wins” factors?

A: Factors include incumbency advantage, campaign funding, district partisanship, candidate quality, and national political climate.

Q: Define “casework” influence on reelection.

A: Effective constituent services build voter goodwill and can boost an incumbent’s reelection chances by addressing individual problems.

Q: What is the “Frank” or franking privilege?

A: The ability of members of Congress to send mail to constituents free of postage for official business, increasing name recognition.

Q: How does redistricting affect House elections?

A: Redistricting can reshape district boundaries to change partisan composition, potentially protecting incumbents or enabling party gains (gerrymandering).

Q: What does “geographic constituency” mean?

A: The people and interests in a lawmaker’s district or state — the physical area the member represents.

Q: What is a “primary constituency” for a member of Congress?

A: The subset of constituents who are most supportive, influential, and likely to reward or punish the member (e.g., party base).

Q: How do members of Congress balance national and local interests?

A: They weigh constituent needs and preferences, partisan positions, and personal ideology — often prioritizing local benefits for reelection.

Q: What is a “roll-call vote”?

A: A recorded vote on a bill where each member’s vote is publicly listed.

Q: Why do members use logrolling?

A: To trade votes on bills so each member secures support for measures benefiting their districts (vote trading).

Q: What is “credit claiming” and why is it important?

A: When members take public credit for federal projects or benefits they helped secure; it improves their perceived effectiveness for voters.

Q: How does constituency opinion affect congressional decision-making?

A: Members are responsive to constituents on high-salience issues; if public opinion is clear, members often align with it to maintain support.

Q: What is the “electoral connection” theory (Mayhew)?

A: Members of Congress are primarily motivated by reelection, shaping behavior like advertising, credit claiming, and position taking.

Q: What role do congressional staff and agencies play in lawmaking and oversight?

A: They research, draft legislation, provide expertise, manage communications, and perform investigative and administrative tasks for members and committees.

Q: What is a “committee markup” and where does it fit in the legislative process?

A: The stage where a committee edits language, amends provisions, and finalizes a bill before voting it out to the floor.

Q: How does the House Rules Committee influence legislation?

A: It determines the rules for debate, amendment, and time allocation on the floor — effectively shaping the fate of House bills.

Q: What is “germane” amendment in the House context?

A: An amendment must be relevant (germane) to the bill’s subject; the House enforces germaneness stricter than the Senate.

Q: What procedural advantage does the Senate have for individual members?

A: Extended debate (filibusters), unanimous consent agreements, and hold/filibuster threats allow individual senators to influence outcomes.

Q: What is a “hold” in the Senate?

A: An informal practice where a senator signals intent to object to unanimous consent, delaying or blocking proceedings.

Q: How does the calendar and scheduling differ between the House and Senate?

A: The House follows a structured calendar controlled by leadership and the Rules Committee; the Senate has a less formal calendar allowing more flexible and extended debate.

Q: What is the significance of conference committees?

A: They reconcile House and Senate bill differences to produce a final version acceptable to both chambers.

Q: What is “oversight inconsistency” and why does it happen?

A: Congress sometimes aggressively oversees agencies, other times neglects oversight due to political incentives, workload, or divisions — leading to inconsistent scrutiny.

Q: How can Congress use the budget process to control bureaucracy?

A: By adjusting appropriations, attaching policy riders, and using budgeting power to reward or punish agencies.

Q: What is the relationship between committees and interest groups?

A: Committees often form closer, more stable relationships with interest groups that are active in their jurisdiction, sometimes forming iron triangles.

Q: Define “iron triangle.”

A: A stable, mutually beneficial relationship between a congressional committee, an administrative agency, and interest groups in a specific policy area.

Q: What are “issue networks”?

A: More open and fluid alliances of various actors (experts, interest groups, agencies, committees) that form around policy issues and are less stable than iron triangles.

Q: What is the chapter’s “Point to Ponder” about interest groups and Congress?

A: It asks whether organized interests have excessive influence over policymaking and how that affects representation and public policy

Q: What is meant by “unorthodox lawmaking” examples in the chapter?

A: Use of omnibus bills, omnibus amendments, suspension of rules, conference agreements, and reconciliation to pass large packages of legislation without full standard procedures.

Q: Why are unorthodox methods used?

A: To overcome decentralization, polarized politics, committee gridlock, and to pass complex or controversial legislation.

Q: How does party discipline affect members’ voting behavior?

A: Stronger party discipline increases predictable voting along party lines; weaker discipline allows more independence and cross-party voting.

Q: What role do party leaders have in distributing benefits to members?

A: Leaders can allocate campaign assistance, staff resources, and help with district projects, but their ability to punish or reward is limited.

Q: How does seniority influence committee power and member behavior?

A: Senior members often hold leadership positions and chair committees, which confers agenda-setting power and influence over members’ careers.

Q: What is the lawmaking consequence of a fragmented committee system?

A: Decentralized authority means multiple committees can claim jurisdiction, leading to turf battles and complexity in producing cohesive legislation.

Q: How do public opinion and media influence Congress?

A: Public attention can push Congress to act; media coverage shapes the salience of issues and can pressure members to respond.

Q: What is the effect of divided government on congressional action?

A: Divided government often makes it harder to pass major legislation but can also check the president’s power and lead to compromise in some cases.

Q: What are “party cues” and how do they help voters?

A: Shortcuts provided by parties indicating how to interpret political information and how a candidate or member aligns ideologically.

Q: How are representation and policy outputs related in Congress?

A: Representation ensures local interests are advocated, while policy outputs reflect compromises among many competing interests and institutional constraints.

Q: How is the “scope of government” affected by congressional behavior?

A: Congress frequently expands government through targeted benefits and programs to satisfy constituencies, but political constraints can curb expansion.

Q: What reform proposals does the chapter mention to improve Congress?

A: Proposals include changing committee structures, reforming the filibuster, campaign finance changes, and increasing transparency — all aimed at reducing gridlock and raising effectiveness

Q: Why might members prefer incrementalism in budgeting and legislation?

A: Incremental changes are easier to pass politically, reduce risk, and reflect compromise among many stakeholders.

Q: What is the role of senior congressional staff (committee and member staff) in policy expertise?

A: Senior staff provide deep policy knowledge, draft legislation, coordinate hearings, and maintain institutional memory critical to lawmaking and oversight.

Q: Define “position taking” as a behavior of members of Congress.

A: Public statements and votes that signal a member’s stance on issues to constituents — often done for electoral credit and clarity.

Q: What is the chapter’s conclusion about Congress and democracy?

A: Congress is an essential democratic institution, representing diverse interests, but its fragmentation, polarization, and influence of organized interests generate challenges for effective policymaking.

What does the chapter mean by “Americans simultaneously want a powerful president and do not trust concentrated power”?

Americans expect the president to solve national problems but fear excessive executive authority due to historical distrust of centralized power.

Q: What are the constitutional requirements to become president?

A: Natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the U.S. for at least 14 years.

Q: What is the 22nd Amendment?

A: It limits presidents to two elected terms.

Q: What is impeachment?

A: A formal accusation by the House that charges a president (or other officials) with “treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.”

Q: Which body conducts the trial after impeachment?

A: The Senate, with a two-thirds vote needed to convict and remove.

Q: Which presidents have been impeached?

A: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump (twice). None were removed.

Q: What are the four major categories of presidential powers?

A: National security, legislative, administrative, and judicial powers.

Q: What is the president’s role as “chief executive”?

A: Ensuring laws are faithfully executed and managing the executive branch.

Q: What is an executive order?

A: A directive issued by the president that has the force of law without congressional approval.

Q: How do executive orders expand presidential power?

A: They allow presidents to shape policy quickly within existing statutory authority.

Q: What is the Cabinet?

A: A group of presidential advisers composed of the heads of executive departments and other key officials.

Q: How many executive departments exist in the Cabinet?

A: Fifteen (e.g., State, Defense, Treasury, etc.).

Q: What is the Executive Office of the President (EOP)?

A: Agencies that support presidential policy and administration, including the NSC, CEA, and OMB.

Q: What is the role of the National Security Council (NSC)?

A: Advises the president on military and foreign policy, coordinating intelligence and national defense.

Q: What does the Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) do?

A: Provides analysis and advice on economic trends and policy.