FIELD METHODS MIDTERMS

1. Question/Argument  

2. Survey  

3. Literature review  

4. Outlining methods  

5. Data gathering  

6. Results  

7. Discuss  

8. Conclude  

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Government policies

in this context, research is used to test if the policies are effective in the betterment of people's lives  

Decision making  

this is improved when research data is consulted, especially in field like marketing, sales, management, and education  

Social and Cultural Interactions  

are understood better so that these could lead to better programs and collaborations between people 

Medicinal and Health Research

have helped save lives and these fields continue to discover ways of promoting well being among people  

Environmental Awareness and Protection  

disasters have been avoided because of research on typhoons and earthquakes, fire prevention, and disaster resilience  

Inventions 

scientists, artists, and engineers create products that have made lives easier for humans and animals  

1. Government policies  

2. Decision making  

3. Social and Cultural Interactions  

4. Medicinal and Health Research  

5. Environmental Awareness and Protection  

6. Inventions  

Research is all around us:

• Critical thinking  

• Organization  

• Self discipline and perseverance  

• Teamwork 

Things important in research:  

Experimental Research Setting  

• focus is on predicting and testing hypothesis  

• done by targeting a specific phenomenon and controlling other variables that may affect it  

Naturalistic Research Setting  

• understanding and interpreting people's lived experiences as they happen in their specific contexts  

• record observations and ask questions about the everyday environment  

Conceptual Research  

• ften termed as theoretical research  

• uses different paradigms to derives new concepts or theories  

• Organizes and systematized the understanding of different concepts  

Empirical Research

• tests the claims of the conceptual research  

• relies on direct observations, experiences, and evidence to test hypotheses  

• this research also shows the factors that could confirm or deny the concepts or theories  

Pure Research  

• motivated by a possible increase in knowledge or a phenomenon or an intellectual challenge that may have not practical application when originally studied  

• should be knowledgeable about abstract concepts, critical assumptions, and specialized theories  

Applied Research  

• motivated by its practicality and usefulness 

• contributes not only to the knowledge base but also to the improvement of the lives of people, organizations, or ecosystems  

Quantitative Research  

• focus is on the extent and measurement of a phenomenon  

• used in understanding the magnitude of a phenomenon, testing hypotheses about the relationship between variables, and making predictions about human behavior  

Qualitative Research  

• focuses in exploring new idea or explaining concepts in greater depth  

• understanding the phenomenon, person, community, or reality in its natural and everyday state  

Mixed Methods Research  

both quantitative and qualitative approaches are used to study a phenomenon, issue, or problem  

Mental Health  

topics on emotional stability, depression, anxiety, addictions, fear, among working and non-working individuals of different age groups, cultural backgrounds, which focuses on uplifting mental wellness  

Personality  

relationship and or differences of personality traits and characteristics that impact a certain dimension in an individuals life

Learning and Memory

• Investigation of human mental processes across different developmental stages and cultural diversities

• Experimentation of interventions for specific cognitive conditions

• Application of research within and outside academic institutions

Human Relations  

aims to explore interpersonal, including but not limited to, marital, corporate, familial, cultural, and social relationships and further offer solutions on suh issues of human relations  

Psychological Disorders  

scrutinizes psychopathological conditions and various factors that can bring possible impact on before and after its occurrence  

Researchers should treat all participants with respect, safeguard their privacy, and avoid any actions that might cause harm or distress.

How should researchers ensure they respect the rights and dignity of participants?

Informed consent ensures participants understand the purpose, risks, and benefits of the study. It should include all relevant details so participants can make an informed choice.

Why is informed consent important in research, and what should it include?

Researchers need to inform participants about recording, explain how the data will be used, and obtain explicit consent.

What additional steps must researchers take when recording participants?

They should ensure participation is voluntary and not linked to grades or professional benefits, avoiding coercion or undue influence.

How can researchers avoid conflicts of interest when involving clients or students?

Consent might be waived in observational studies where there is minimal risk, provided that privacy protections are in place.

When might it be appropriate to waive informed consent, and what safeguards are required?

While incentives are allowed, they should not be so large as to coerce participation or cloud judgment about risks.

What ethical concerns arise from offering incentives to participants?

Deception is allowed if it is essential to the study, poses no harm, and participants are debriefed afterward.

Is it ethical to deceive participants in psychological research?

Debriefing clarifies the study’s purpose, addresses any deception used, and answers participants' questions.

Why is debriefing important, and what should it include?

Researchers must respect privacy and avoid observing in private settings or disclosing personal information.

What are the ethical considerations for conducting observational research in public spaces?

Researchers must follow humane practices, minimize distress, and justify the necessity of using animals.

How should researchers ethically manage animal care in studies?

Researchers must report findings accurately without altering data to fit hypotheses or omitting relevant results.

What ethical guidelines should be followed when reporting results?

They should credit all sources appropriately and avoid using others' ideas or findings without acknowledgment.

How can researchers prevent plagiarism in their work?

Credit should be based on the level of contribution, with all significant contributors listed as authors.

How should authorship be determined in a collaborative study?

Duplicate publication misrepresents the research’s contribution, leading to redundant work and skewed data.

Why is duplicate publication discouraged, and what are the risks?

Data should be shared when requested for verification purposes, with privacy and confidentiality protections.

When is it appropriate to share research data, and what precautions are needed?

Reviewers must maintain confidentiality, avoid conflicts of interest, and provide fair, unbiased feedback.

What ethical responsibilities do reviewers have when evaluating research papers?

Disclosing limitations allows for a better understanding of the study's scope, such as sample size or methodological constraints.

Why should researchers disclose limitations, and what are examples of common limitations?

 EXPERIMENTAL Research method

• conditions are controlled  

• 1 or more independent variables  

• can be manipulated to test a hypothesis  

• have dependent variable  

• evaluation of causal relationships among variables  

• all other variables are eliminated or controlled 

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Allows

Dependent Variable  

• Criterion by which the results of the experiment judged 

• Variables that is expected to be dependent on the manipulation of the independent variable  

Independent Variable  

• any variable that can be manipulated or altered independently of any other variable  

• hypothesized to be the causal influence  

• ex: demographics  

Experimental Treatments  

group of subjects exposed to the experimental treatment  

Control Group  

• group of subjects exposed to the control condition  

• not exposed to the experimental treatment  

Weight Control Group  

• it is a control but do not have placebo  

• feasible if sample size is large  

Test Unit  

entity whose responses to experimental treatments are being observed or measured  

Randomization  

• assignments of subjects and treatments to groups is based on chance  

• provides "control by chance"  

• this allows the assumption that the groups are identical with respect to all variables except the experimental treatment  

Constant Errors  or systematic error 

occurs in the same experimental condition every time the basic experiment is repeated - a systematic bias  

Experimental groups always administered the treatment in the morning, while control groups always in the afternoon. This introduces an uncontrolled extraneous variable- time of day.

Extraneous variables  

• variable other than the manipulated variables that affect the results of the experiment  

• can potentially invalidate results  

Demand Characteristics

Experimenter Bias  

Guinea Pig Effect

Blinding  

Constancy of Conditions 

Sources of Constant Error

Demand Characteristics

• experimental design procedures or situational aspects of the experiment that provide unintentional hints to subjects about the experimenter's hypothesis  

• if occurs, participants likely to act in a manner consistent with the experimental treatment  

• most prominent demand characteristic is the person actually administering the experimental treatments  

Experimenter Bias  

effect on the subject's behavior caused by an experimenter's presence, actions, or comments  

Guinea Pig Effect

effect on experimental results caused by subjects changing normal behavior or attitude to cooperate with experimenter  

Blinding  

• technique used to control subjects knowledge of whether or not they have been given the experimental treatment  

• taste test, placebos (chemically inert pills), etc  

Constancy of Conditions 

subjects in experimental and control groups are exposed to identical situations except for differing conditions of the independent variable  

Order of Presentation  

Counterbalancing 

Controlling Extraneous Variables

Demand Characteristics

Participants start acting differently after noticing the researcher smiles more when they answer a certain way.

Experimenter Bias

The researcher’s enthusiastic tone when discussing the experimental treatment seems to affect participants' responses.

Guinea Pig Effect

Knowing they’re part of a study, participants try extra hard to perform well and cooperate fully with the researcher.

Blinding

In a drug study, participants don’t know if they’re receiving the actual medication or a placebo.

Constancy of Conditions

Both the experimental and control groups take a test in the same room with identical conditions, except one group receives a specific treatment.

Rights and Dignity of Research Participants

A researcher ensures that participants feel respected and their personal information is protected.

Informed Consent for Research

Participants are given full information about the study and sign a consent form before starting.

Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research

The researcher asks permission to record participants’ voices during the interview.

Research Participation of Clients, Students, and Subordinates

A professor invites students to participate in a study but makes it clear it won’t affect their grades.

Waiving Informed Consent for Research

Researchers observe public behavior without explicit consent because it poses minimal risk.

Offering Inducements for Research Participation

A study offers a small gift card to participants to thank them for their time.

Use of Deception in Research

Researchers tell participants the study is about memory, though it actually tests stress response, to avoid influencing behavior.

Debriefing Procedures

After completing the study, researchers explain its true purpose to participants.

Observational Research

Researchers observe behaviors in a public park to study social interactions.

Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research

Researchers ensure animals in a study are housed in humane conditions and given proper care.

Reporting Research Results

The researchers report all findings, including unexpected results, in their study.

Avoiding Plagiarism

A researcher cites all sources and ideas that influenced their study to avoid taking credit for others’ work.

Publication Credit

Multiple researchers are acknowledged based on their contributions to the study.

Avoiding Duplicate Publication of Data

The researchers submit new findings rather than republishing the same data in multiple journals.

Sharing Research Data for Verification

The researcher shares data with colleagues to verify findings, ensuring participant confidentiality.

Responsibilities of Reviewers

A reviewer evaluates a research paper fairly, without letting personal biases affect the review.

Limitations of the Study

The researchers list sample size as a limitation that may affect the study’s generalizability.

Order of Presentation

• When the same subjects experience two or more experimental treatments, errors may arise from the order in which treatments are presented

Counterbalancing

• To counteract order effects, half of the subjects are exposed to Treatment A first, followed by Treatment B.

• The other half are exposed to Treatment B first, then Treatment A.

• This method eliminates the effects of the order of presentation on the results.

• Assesses the extent to which experimental results can be generalized to real-world settings.

• Example: If a laboratory study shows that a stress-reduction technique lowers anxiety levels, external validity would determine if this technique is also effective in reducing anxiety in everyday, real-life situations.

• Confidence that the results apply in real-life settings.

Internal Validity

• Determines if changes in the dependent variable are solely due to the independent variable.

• Example: In a study testing the effects of a new study technique on test scores, internal validity ensures that any improvement in scores is directly due to the technique and not other factors, such as additional tutoring.

• Confidence that the change is due to your independent variable (e.g., the study method).

History Effect  

• specific events in the external environments between the 1st and 2nd measurements that are beyond the experimenter's control  

• common history effects occurs when competitors change their marketing strategies during a test marketing experiment  

Cohort Effect  

change in dependent variable that occurs because members of one experimental group experienced different historical situations than member of other experimental groups  

Maturation Effect 

• effect on experimental results caused by experimental subjects maturing or changing over time  

• during a daylong experiment, subjects may grow hungry, tired, or bored  

Testing Effect  

• in before and after studies, pretesting may sensitize subjects when taking a test for the 2nd time  

• may cause subjects to act differently than they would have if no pretest measures were taken  

Instrumentation Effect 

caused by a change in the wording of questions, in interviews or in other procedures used to measure the dependent variable  

Selection Effect  

sampling bias that results from differential selection of respondents for the comparison groups  

Mortality or Sample Attrition

• results from the withdrawal of some subjects from the experiment before it is completed  

• effects randomization  

• especially troublesome if some withdraw from one treatment group and not from other (or at least a different rates)  

 

X 

-exposure of a group to an experimental treatment  

O

-observation or measurement of the dependent variable  

-If multiple observations or measurements are taken subscripts indicate temporal order (i.e: 01. 02, etc)  

R

-random assignments of test units  

-individuals selected as subjects for the experiment are randomly assigned to the experimental groups  

Pre-Experimental Designs  

• These designs don’t fully control for factors that can reduce validity (accuracy and generalizability) and aren’t considered true experiments. They’re often used for early, exploratory research.

• Examples: One-Shot Design, One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design, Static Group Design

One-Group Posttest-only Design 

• Also called the "after-only" design, where a single measurement is taken after the treatment.

• There’s no comparison or control group to account for other influences.

• Commonly used for quick assessments like taste tests.

• Diagram: X O₁ (where X = treatment, O₁ = observation after treatment)

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

• The same group is measured before and after the treatment.

• There’s no control group to compare results.

• If too much time passes between measurements, factors like time (maturation) or outside events can affect results.

• Diagram: O₁ X O₂ (where O₁ = pre-test, X = treatment, O₂ = post-test)

Posttest-Only with Non-Equivalent Group Design

• Also called "after-only with control group."

• The experimental group is measured after treatment; the control group is measured without treatment.

• There’s no pre-test, so we can’t be sure if the groups were similar before treatment, which is a key limitation.

Single-Case Designs

• These designs focus on studying whether an intervention is effective for a single individual, looking at changes in learning or behavior.

• The study involves only one participant, so there’s no comparison group or random assignment.

• It’s different from a case study, as it looks for direct changes over time.

• It’s a type of quasi-experimental design, often using a one-group time-series approach.

• Manipulation of the Independent Variable (IV)

• Randomization

• Comparison Groups

True experimental designs have three key components: