Organelle	Structure	Function
Mitochondria	Has a double membrane arrangement; four distinct compartments - the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the matrix	Powerhouse of the cell
Nucleus	Clusters of neuron bodies in the central nervous system center of an atom that contains protons and neurons	Control center of the cell which contains genetic material
Cell membrane	Thin double layer structure of lipid molecules with protein molecules throughout it	Encloses cell contents; keeps unwanted substances out
Nucleolus	Spherical structure	Procedure and assemble the cells ribosomes
Smooth ER	Continuous of the rough er; consists of tubules arranged in a looping network	Enzymes speed up reactions involved with metabolizing lipids
Capsule	Slimy layers composed mostly of polysaccharides that encloses the cell wall	Protect bacteria from attack by white blood cells in the animals they effect; keep cells from drying out and help bacteria attach to other cells
Cell wall	Lining of the cell	Provides protection to the cell, circulation, water, and minerals
Vacuole	Surrounded by a thin membrane and filled with fluid and any molecules they take in	Storage structure in a cell; hold food for later use or waste removal; maintain water balance
Lysosomes	Activated digestive enzymes; acidic pH; spheres; membranes	Digest biological molecules(viruses, bacteria, dead organelles); metabolic functions
Rough ER	Made of series of flattened sacs that are part of a continuous membrane	Create proteins
Glycoprotein	Molecules that comprise protein and carb chains that are involved with psychological functions	Reproduction, immune system, hormones, and protection of cells and organisms
Peripheral protein	Anchored to the membrane or to other protein	Support, communicate, enzymes, and molecule transfer in the cell
Chromosomes	Made of tightly coiled chromatin	Carry gene traits; determines the genetic sex (XY/XX)
Cytoplasm	Gel like fluid that floats within the cell	Provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within a cell
Cilia	Short, hair-like structures on the surface surrounding cells	Help the cell move around as well as prevent debris and possible pathogens from invading the body
Cytoskeleton	Made of microtubules, give the shape of just lines	Provides structure and support, organelle transport, cell division
Flagella	Hair-like organelle	Enables many protozoa, bacteria and spermatozoa
Transmembrane protein	Amino acids that form the shape of the protein	Connect cells together, act as enzymes
Ribosome	Two subunits made of proteins and rna	Translates genetic code into amino acids that form proteins
Golgi body	Flattened membrane sacs that absorb vesicles from rough ER	Creates new ones, separates proteins

Wednesday, September 14, 2022

Cellular respiration

Food is broken down to form energy in the form of ATP
Everything we do requires energy
Glucose + oxygen ---> carbon dioxide + water

Homeostasis: the maintenance of a stable internal environment

All body systems contribute to homeostasis, especially the endocrine and nervous system

Homeostatic control mechanism: causes an imbalance

Stimulus: produces change in variable
Receptor: change in variable is recognized or received by the receptor
Input: information sent along the afferent pathway to the control center
Output: information send along efferent pathway to effector
Response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis

Negative feedback mechanisms/loop: acting in opposition to become balance

Shuts down reaction and counteracts the stimulus

Positive feedback mechanisms/loop: encourage or increase a reaction to become balances

Speed up or enhances the reaction

Tissues: groups of cells that are similar in structure and function

4 types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

Tissue repair:

Inflammation - release of inflammatory chemicals which spark the blood/redness; capillaries dilate(bigger) which increases permeability(if it can pass through); blood clot begins to form(deep); scab forms(superficial)
Organization - clot replaced by granulation tissue(restore vascularity); collagen produced by fibroblasts(fibers); macrophages(large cells eat) clean dead/dying cells; surface epithelium regenerates
Regeneration - fibrous tissue reconnects: underlying tissue = scar tissue; epithelial tissue thickens: epithelium = fully regenerated

Factors affecting tissue repair: type of injury, immediate care, blood supply, health and age of organism

Thursday, September 15, 2022

Epithelial tissue: next to open space; “epi” meaning on top of/upon

Structure: closely joined cells; free exposed to air or fluid; attached to basement membrane; supported by underlying connective tissue; innervated but avascular(nerves but no blood in the epithelial tissue)

Function: covers body’s outside; lines organs and cavities; regenerate rapidly; barrier against microbes, injury and fluid loss

Categories of epithelial tissue: by shape or layer

Squamous: very flat; circular; fried egg
Cuboidal: cube shape; squares
Columnar: tall and straight; rectangle
Simple: 1 layer of cells
Stratified: 2 or more layers of cells
Pseudostratified: 1 layer with appearance of multiple; cells vary in length; “pseudo” means fake

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Simple squamous: thin and leaky cause of circle and flat; cells function in the exchange of material by diffusion; found in line blood vessels and line air sacs of lungs to pass oxygen right through

Stratified squamous: regenerates rapidly near the basement membrane; new cells at the bottom of the tissue, not top so that newer cells are protected and old cells can be remove rather than newer ones; found in surfaces subject to abrasion or coming in contact with something like the out layer of skin

Simple cuboidal: specialized for secretion; found in kidney tubules, thyroid gland and salivary glands

Stratified cuboidal: rare in the body; found in the mammary glands in breast tissue

Simple columnar: like a water balloon filled with cytoplasm; found where secretion or active absorption is major function; found in intestines(small absorbs nutrients and large absorbs water)

Stratified columnar: protection; secretion; rare in the body; found in the male urethra and pharynx

Exceptions(two):

Transitional epithelium: several cell layers, basal cells are cuboidal, surface cells are dome shaped; stretched to permit the distention of; lines the bladder, ureters, and part of the urethra

Pseudostratified columnar: similar to stratified columnar; only 1 cell layer thick, but appears to be multiple layers; line nasal passages of many vertebrates

Monday/Tuesday, September 19/20, 2022

Connective tissue:

Structure: properties are determined by relative amounts of cells, extracellular matrix(ground substance/fluid and fibers), and vascularity varies(if there's blood present or not)

Function: connect/binding and support, protection, insulation(adipose), transportation(literal blood)

Structural elements: cells, fibers, and ground substances(every tissue does not have the same combination of all these)

Cells: fibroblast/fibrocyte(fibrous material); osteoblast/osteocyte(bone); chondroblast/chondrocyte(cartilage); hemoblast/hemocyte(blood); macrophage/mast cell(white blood cells)
Fibers: collagen(tough, strong fibers); elastic(long, thin stretchy fibers); reticular(branched delicate networks)
Ground substance: interstitial(tissue) fluid; varying thickness

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Loose areolar: fills all the spaces that seems empty; under any epithelial tissue; looks like lines

Properties: gel-like matrix with all fiber types; cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, white blood cells
Functions: wraps and cushion organs; macrophages phagocytize bacteria and help with inflammation; holds tissue fluid
Locations: under epithelia, lines mucus membrane; surrounds capillaries and organs

Adipose: hold onto fat; nucleus shoved to side due to fat taking up all the space

Properties: sparse matrix; closely packed fat cells; nuclei pushed to side
Functions: reserve fuel; insulation; support/protect organs
Locations: under skin; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; forms breast tissue

Reticular: arms/branches out; branch-y networks

Properties: network of fibers with cells; loose ground substance
Functions: internal skeleton that supports other cell types(WBC, mast cells, macrophages)
Locations: lymphoid organs; lymph nodes; bone marrow; spleen

Fibrous/Dense regular: looks like little waves of fibers

Properties: parallel collagen fibers; few elastin fibers
Functions: attach muscles to bone or other muscles; resistant to pulling
Locations: tendons; ligaments; aponeuroses(what connects muscle to muscle)

Dense irregular: similar to regular but not in parallel lines

Properties: irregular arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers
Functions: withstand tension in many directions; structural strength
Locations: dermis of skin; submucosa of digestive tract; capsules of organs and joints

Hyaline cartilage: tough; all over and around your bones; looks like swiss cheese

Properties: no defined shape; firm matrix; collagen fiber network
Functions: support, reinforce, cushions; resist compression
Locations: embryonic skeleton; ends of bones; costal cartilage of ribs; nose, trachea

Elastic cartilage: hard-ish with lines; more “nasty” swiss cheese

Properties: similar to hyaline but with more elastic fibers;
Functions: maintains shape/structure; flexibility
Locations: external; epiglottis

Fibrocartilage: somewhat parallel line with cells

Properties: matrix like hyaline cartilage; mostly thick collagen
Functions: resists tension; absorb compressive shock
Locations: intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joints

Bone: actually looks like swiss cheese; looks like tree trunks;

Properties: hard calcified matrix; lost of collagen fibers; vascularized
Functions: support and protect; hematopoiesis
Locations: bones

Blood: only fluid tissue in the body; looks like vessels really zoomed out; purple dots are white blood cells and pink dots are red blood cells

Properties: red and white blood cells; plasma(fluid matrix)
Functions: transport gasses, nutrients, waste, and other substances
Locations: blood vessels

Wednesday, September 21, 2022

Muscular tissue:

Structure: closely packed cells with contractile proteins; fed by many blood vessels; more tissue in you body is muscle than any other tissue; more muscle tissue in most animals than any other tissue

Functions: movement; temperature regulation

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Skeletal muscle: long cylinder cells with multiple nuclei; long straight tube with stripes

Properties: long, cylindrical multinucleate cells with obvious striations
Functions: initiates and controls voluntary movement
Locations: muscles that attach to bones or skin

Cardiac muscle: dark lines are the discs; branches; also striated/stripes

Properties: branching, striated, uninucleate cells interlocking at intercalated discs
Functions: propels blood into circulation; involuntary
Locations: walls of the heart

Smooth muscle: not striated/striped; semi circle shape; thin lines that are pinched off at the end

Properties: sheets of spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei that have no striations
Functions: propels substances along internal passageways; involuntary
Locations: walls of hollow organs

Nervous tissue: long strings spreading out from cytoplasm; looks like roots/ splat of paint

Structure: neurons and support cells; found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

Functions: sense stimuli; transmits electrical signals; regulates and controls body functions

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Note