Vetos & Elections

February 21, 1811 (sustained) 

who: James Madison

Bill: An act incorporating the protestant Episcopal Church in the Town of Alexandria in the District of Columbia 

Message Summary: The bill sought to establish an Episcopal church via congressional legislation with federal aid. Madison believed this to be a direct violation of the First Amendment and a violation of the separation of church and state. 

Key Quotes: 

"because the Bill exceeds the rightful authority, to which Governments are limited by the essential distinction between Civil and Religious functions, and violates, in particular, the Article of the 

Constitution of the United States which declares, that 'Congress shall make no law respecting a Religious establishment."" 

"would be a precident (sic) for giving to religious Societies as such, a legal agency in carrying into effect a public and civil duty."

January 30, 1815 (sustained)

who: James Madison

Bill: An act to incorporate the subscribers to the Bank of the United States of America 

Message Summary: Madison opposed this particular version of Congress' recharter on the BUS because it did not correctly fulfill its principal purposes such as increasing credit for the federal government, creating a currency, or providing better credit opportunities to the public. Though the bill claimed it would do so, Madison believed its structure was faulty. He stated that the bank subscribers would profit too greatly in relation to what the government was giving them and questioned how helpful the bank would actually be to the public. 

Key Quotes: 

"it is as reasonable as it is requisite that the Government, in return for these extraordinary concessions to the bank, should have a greater security for attaining the public objects of the institution than is presented in the bill."

March 3, 1817 (sustained)

who: James Madison

Bill: An act to set apart and pledge certain funds for internal improvements 

Message Summary: Madison believed that using federal funds to create roads and canals could not be interpreted as a "necessary and proper" power of Congress. He rejected the interpretation that building infrastructure could be justified through the enumerated power of regulating commerce among the states. He also stated that interpreting these improvements as providing defense or general welfare would mean that Congress' powers would be near limitless. He did state there was an obvious advantage of having such improvements but could not get past the constitutional hurdle he envisioned, believing it would be a slippery slope to federal usurpation of powers granted exclusively to the states. 

Key Quotes: 

"I am constrained by the insuperable difficulty I feel in reconciling the bill with the Constitution of the United States to return it with that objection to the House of Representatives,' 

"But seeing that such a power is not expressly given by the Constitution, and believing that it can not be deduced from any part of it without an inadmissible latitude of construction and a reliance on insufficient precedents,"

May 4, 1822 (sustained) 

who: James Monroe

Bill: An act for the preservation and repair of the Cumberland Road 

Message Summary: Monroe stated that the creation of turnpikes and their associated tolls was part of a power to facilitate internal improvements, and such powers lay outside the scope of congressional jurisdiction. He believed that it was falsely justified as being related to the power to make post roads, prepare for defense, regulate commerce, or pay debts. In his interpretation of the Constitution, an amendment would be required for such powers to exist. 

Key Quotes: 

"I am of the opinion that Congress does not possess this power; that the States individually can not grant it, for although they may assent to the appropriation of money within their limits for such purposes, they can grant no power of jurisdiction or sovereignty by special compacts with the United States. This power can be granted only by an amendment to the Constitution and in the mode prescribed by it.

May 27, 1830

who: Andrew Jackson

Bill: A subscription of stock in the Maysville, Washington, Paris, and Lexington Turnpike Road Company

Message Summary:Jackson apologizes for supporting internal improvements but not the bill. He emphasizes paying the national debt first and notes constitutional issues regarding state sovereignty and federal funding for improvements. He cites historical examples and insists that appropriations must not be considered local. Jackson warns that the bill would delay debt repayment and acknowledges necessary taxes. He supports improvements but insists on careful consideration, arguing for a constitutional amendment to prevent government overreach. He dismisses claims connecting tariffs to internal improvements as misleading.

Key Quotes: 

"such grants have always been professedly under the control of the general principle that the works which might be thus aided should be 'of a general, not local, national, not State,' character. A disregard of this distinction would of necessity lead to the subversion of the federal system." 

"the cause in which there has been so much martyrdom, and from which so much was expected by the friends of liberty, may be abandoned, and the degrading truth that man is unfit for self-government admitted. And this will be the case if expediency be made a rule of construction in interpreting the Constitution." 

"Not withstanding the union of the Government with the corporation by whose immediate agency any work of internal improvement is carried on, the inquiry will still remain, Is it national and conducive to the benefit of the whole, or local and operating only to the advantage of a portion of the Union?"

 "How gratifying the effect of presenting to the world the sublime spectacle of a Republic of more than 12,000,000 happy people, in the fifty-fourth year of her existence, after having passed through two protracted wars--the one for the acquisition and the other for the maintenance of liberty--free from debt...This is the more necessary in order that they may be equitable among the several States, promote harmony between different sections of the Union and their representatives, preserve other parts of the Constitution from being undermined by the exercise of doubtful powers or the too great extension of those which are not so." 

July 10, 1832 (sustained) 

who: Andrew Jackson

Bill: Modify and continue an act to incorporate the subscribers to the Bank of the United States

Message Summary:Jackson supports a banking institution for the people's benefit but criticizes the current bank for being unconstitutional and harmful. He claims stockholders profit unjustly and foreign investors benefit significantly. Jackson argues for public ownership of stock, limiting power to a few. He addresses concerns about bank closure, insists stockholders should be domestic, and rejects certain Supreme Court precedents. He believes the bill undermines states' rights, should have included more congressional review, and ultimately should be decided by voters in the next election.

Key Quotes: 

The bill "... was presented to me on the 4th July instant. Having considered it with that solemn regard to the principles of the Constitution which the day was calculated to inspire, and come to the conclusion. that it ought not to become a law," 

"One Congress, in 1791, decided in favor of a bank; another, in 1811, decided against it. One Congress, in 1815, decided against a bank; another, in 1816, decided in its favor. Prior to the present Congress, therefore, the precedents drawn from that source were equal. If we resort to the States, the expressions of legislative, judicial, and executive opinions against the bank have been probably to those in its favor as 4 to 1. There is nothing in precedent, therefore, which, if its authority were admitted, ought to weigh in favor of the act before me." 

"More than eight millions of the stock of this bank are held by foreigners. By this act the American Republic proposes virtually to make them a present of some millions of dollars. For these gratuities to foreigners and to some of our own opulent citizens the act secures no equivalent whatever. 

"Nor is our Government to be maintained or our Union preserved by invasions of the rights and powers of the several States. In thus attempting to make our General Government strong we make it weak. Its true strength consists in leaving individuals and States as much as possible to themselves--in making itself felt, not in its power, but in its beneficence; not in its control, but in its protection; not in binding the States more closely to the center, but leaving each to move unobstructed in its proper orbit."

August 16, 1841 (sustained) 

who: John Tyler

Bill: An act to incorporate the subscribers to the Fiscal Bank of the United States

Message Summary: Tyler opens by discussing the decades-long Bank debate and asserting that as a member of Congress, he clearly stated his disapproval of it and could not, now, go back after becoming president. He believes the previous incarnation of a bank failed to provide a stable currency and did not do any job better than local banks could do. Its ability to have its notes be used to repay public debt was abused and disliked by the public. He echoes Jackson's disdain for a bank to be able to establish branches without specific authorization from Congress. He further questions the amount of time given and the manner required for states to deny the Bank the right to open a branch within its borders. He goes into several theoretical circumstances where the legislature of a state would be deprived of its right to deny a branch.

Key Quotes: 

"I could not give my sanction to a measure of the character described without surrendering all claim to the respect of honorable men, all confidence on the part of the people, all self-respect, all regard for moral and religious obligations, without an observance of which no government can be prosperous and no people can be happy. It would be to commit a crime which I would not willfully commit to gain any earthly reward, and which would justly subject me to the ridicule and scorn of all virtuous men."

"This iron rule is to give way to no circumstances; it is unbending and inflexible. It is the language of the master to the vassal; an unconditional answer is claimed forthwith, and delay, postponement, or incapacity to answer produces an implied assent which is ever after irrevocable." 

"I regard the bill as asserting for Congress the right to incorporate a United States bank with power and right to establish offices of discount and deposit in the several States of this Union with or without their consent--a principle to which I have always heretofore been opposed and which can never obtain my sanction;"

September 9, 1841 (sustained) 

who: John Tyler

Bill: An act to provide for the better collection, safekeeping, and disbursement of the public revenue, by means of a corporation to be styled the Fiscal Corporation of the United States 

Message Summary: Tyler reiterates his stance against a bank created by Congress, emphasizing the veto's protective role against majority rule. He acknowledges the bill's constitutional title but states it exceeds Congress's powers. Tyler cites specific objections, including the unfair advantage for banks and the lack of limits on bills of exchange, disadvantaging certain states. He concludes, hoping Congress will wait for his State of the Union to discuss government fund protection, citing time constraints after Harrison's death.

Key Quotes: 

"Mere regard to the will of a majority must not in a constitutional republic like ours control this sacred and solemn duty of a sworn officer. The Constitution itself I regard and cherish as the embodied and written will of the whole people of the United States." 

"At the commencement of this session, inclined from choice to defer to the legislative will, I submitted to Congress the propriety of adopting a fiscal agent which, without violating the Constitution, would separate the public money from the Executive control and perform the operations of the Treasury without being burdensome to the people or inconvenient or expensive to the Government. It is deeply to be regretted that this department of the Government can not upon constitutional and other grounds concur with the legislative department in this last measure proposed to attain these desirable objects." 

June 11, 1844 (sustained) 

who: John Tyler

Bill: An act making appropriations for the improvement of certain harbors and rivers

 Message Summary: Tyler argues that states control rivers within their borders and Congress's regulation power is limited to foreign trade. He disapproves of federal aid for local improvements, citing that they benefit some areas over others. Tyler supports specific national projects but vetoes the bill due to local biases, suggesting a different bill could pass if all improvements benefit the nation equally.

Key Quotes: 

"The inferential power, in order to be legitimate, must be clearly and plainly incidental to some granted power and necessary to its exercise. To refer it to the head of convenience or usefulness would be to throw open the door to a boundless and unlimited discretion and to invest Congress with an unrestrained authority." 

"And so the power to regulate commerce among the several States no more invests Congress with jurisdiction over the water courses of the States than the first branch of the grant does over the water courses of foreign powers, which would be an absurdity." 

James K. Polk

Key Quotes: 

"The inferential power, in order to be legitimate, must be clearly and plainly incidental to some granted power and necessary to its exercise. To refer it to the head of convenience or usefulness would be to throw open the door to a boundless and unlimited discretion and to invest Congress with an unrestrained authority." 

"And so the power to regulate commerce among the several States no more invests Congress with jurisdiction over the water courses of the States than the first branch of the grant does over the water courses of foreign powers, which would be an absurdity."

August 3, 1846 (sustained)

who:James K. Polk

Bill: An act making appropriations for the improvement of certain harbors and rivers

Message Summary:
Polk opposed a bill for over $1. 3 million in internal improvements, claiming it is unconstitutional and unnecessary. He believes it would concentrate power in Congress, undermine state authority, and lead to wasteful spending. He argues that projects should only involve foreign trade. Polk warns that passing such a bill could overwhelm the Treasury and result in more requests for funding.

. Key Quotes: 

"if it shall be sanctioned and become a law, what practical constitutional restraint can hereafter be imposed upon the most extended system of internal improvements by the Federal Government in all parts of the Union." 

"The general proposition that the Federal Government does not possess this power is so well settled and has for a considerable period been so generally acquiesced in that it is not deemed necessary to reiterate the arguments by which it is sustained."  

"To sanction the bill with such provisions would be to concede the principle that the Federal Government possesses the power to expend the public money in a general system of internal improvements, limited in its extent only by the ever-varying discretion of successive Congresses and successive Executives. It would be to efface and remove the limitations and restrictions of power which the Constitution has wisely provided to limit the authority and action of the Federal Government to a few well-defined and specified objects." 

Election of 1800 

Summary: The 1800 election was crucial in proving that the U. S. could hold a fair and impartial election. During this campaign, President John Adams faced harsh criticism, while his opponent, Vice President Thomas Jefferson, was also attacked. The Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans debated foreign threats and power dynamics. In a historic moment, Jefferson won after a long ballot process, ensuring a peaceful transfer of power despite tensions.

Major Candidates (Parties): John Adams, Massachusetts - Incumbent (Federalist); Thomas Jefferson, Virginia - Vice President (Republican), Charles C. Pickney - General/Envoy, South Carolina (Federalist); Aaron Burr - Senator, New York (Republican)

Key People: 

Benjamin Franklin Bache - Pro-Republican Editor of the Aurora; James Callender - Author of Anti-Federalist The Prospect Before Us that was prosecuted under the Sedition Act 

James Bayard - Lone Delaware Representative who played a negotiator role during the votes of the contingent election 

Alexander Hamilton - Leader of High Federalist faction who printed an attack pamphlet against Adams that led to a split in the Federalist party 

Theodore Sedgwick - Speaker of the House during the election and contingent election; High Federalist from Massachusetts who had broken with Adams and initially desired Burr over Jefferson. 

November 9, 1799 -

Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul of France in a bloodless coup d'état that overthrew the Directory, ending the French Revolution that Jefferson had lauded

December 14, 1799

- Former President George Washington died at Mount Vernon, ending the hopes of Hamilton and other High Federalists that he would run for president. 

May 10, 1800

Adams fired his Hamilton cabinet members Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, Secretary of War James McHenry, and Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr.

August 30, 1800

A revolt of enslaved people in Virginia led by Gabriel Prosser was discovered before it could take place, leading to charges of Republican pro-Revolution politics being a cause.

Campaign Issues: 

Domestic

Role of partisanship and party unity (High Federalists/Hamiltonian loyalists vs. Adams and moderates); Alien and Sedition Acts; immigration; role and spread of democracy; War preparedness (Additional Army, taxes); Disestablishment of state churches 

- Campaign Issues: 

Foreign:

Fallout from French Revolution and brewing Napoleonic Wars; Peace negotiations with France (XYZ Affair and renewed negotiations); Quasi-War; British trade/Jay's Treaty 

New York

 The State Assembly had previously been under Federalist control and, due largely to Burr's efforts in New York City, the Republicans won a majority and were able to capture the entire slate of electors for Jefferson and Burr. If the Federalists had won the majority of New York City's legislative seats, they would have held their majority at the state level and the addition of the 15 electoral votes would have been more than enough for Adams and Pickney to win.

Maryland:

The state had a district vote system for electors that saw many close votes with some differences as small as single digits. Federalists sought a statewide legislative selection system. Had they won the hotly contested previous legislative elections a Federalists sweep would have given Adams 70 electoral votes to Jefferson and Burr's 68.

Pennsylvania:

A split between the two houses of Pennsylvania's legislature led to a compromise that split the state's vote with a slight victory for the Republicans. If that state had been unable to conduct a vote, it could have been argued that no candidate had met the qualification for capturing a majority of electoral votes available which would have thrown the election to the Federalist controlled House to decide amongst the top five finishers.

South Carolina:

Pickney's home state had previously supported his brother as a Federalist candidate in 1796. If Pickney had acquiesced to legislators' request to support him instead of Adams, the additional eight votes would have placed him as Jefferson's vice president or with some other small shifts such as a half dozen votes shifting in a key Maryland District he could have tied or even bested Jefferson. 

"The Friends of peace will vote for Jefferson - the friends of war will vote for Adams or for Pinckney."

Thomas Jefferson slogan

The second quote—"We must prevent an Atheist in Religion and a Fanatic in politics from getting possession of the helm of the State.

Alexander Hamilton,

"Hamilton is an intriguant-the greatest intriguant in the world-a man devoid of every moral principle-a bastard and as much a foreigner as Gallatin. Mr Jefferson is an infinitely better man, a wiser one, I am sure, and, if President, will act wisely."

John Adams

May 5, 1800 "The spirit of 1776. is not dead. it has only been slumbering. the body of the American people is substantially republican."

Thomas Jefferson

March 12, 1799 

"If we must have an enemy at the head of the government, let it be one whom we can oppose, and for whom we are not responsible"

Alexander Hamilton

May 10, 1800 "Occurrences which have either happened or come to light since the election of Mr. ADAMS to the Presidency, confirming my unfavorable forebodings of his character, have given new and decisive energy, in my mind, to the sentiment of his unfitness for the station."

- Letter from Alexander Hamilton,

October 24, 1800 

"Burr loves nothing but himself; thinks of nothing but his own aggrandizement, and will be content with nothing, short of permanent power in his own hands."

-Alexander Hamilton

"We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists."

- Thomas Jefferson Inaugural Address,

"The storm is over, and we are in port.

-Thomas Jefferson March 4, 1801

Election of 1824 

Summary:

The election of 1824 showed that the U. S. political system needed clear party divisions, similar to the election of 1800. The Era of Good Feelings ended, leading to a more divided political landscape. With no clear leader within the Republican Party, several regional candidates emerged. While Clay was a key figure for the American System, he had less support nationally compared to Crawford and Adams. Jackson led in the popular vote but faced a narrow win in the House. After Adams won and appointed Clay to the State Department, accusations of a quid pro quo surfaced, leading to tensions as Jackson prepared for the 1828 election.

Major Candidates (Parties): John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts - Secretary of State (Republican); John C. Calhoun, South Carolina - Secretary of War (Republican); Henry Clay, Kentucky - Speaker of the House (Republican) DeWitt Clinton, New York - Governor (Republican); William Crawford, Georgia - Secretary of Treasury (Republican); Andrew Jackson, Tennessee - Senator (Republican)

Albert Gallatin

Republican Party architect that was nominated as the vice-presidential candidate by the Congressional Caucus, but was asked to withdraw by Crawford when 

Pennsylvania no longer seemed winnable 

James Monroe

 Incumbent President that privately supported Crawford or Clinton initially, but refused to endorse a successor 

Martin Van Buren -

Senator from New York that led the Crawford campaign efforts and wanted to maintain strict party loyalty as a stabilizing factor for the country 

Stephen Van Rensselaer -

Aristocrat and Representative from New York that cast the deciding vote for Adams in an otherwise deadlocked New York contingent because he claimed to see Adams name on the floor after praying for guidance 

1823 Event #1

- A.B. Plot against Crawford unfolded as Calhoun and associates discredited him with charges about abuse of power as Treasury secretary.

1817-1825 Era of Good Feelings

The uni-party system of the Monroe Presidency that saw a lull in partisanship ended with the charges of the Corrupt Bargain after the contingent election.

September 1823 -

Crawford suffered a powerful stroke causing him to be bedridden for a time. 

February 14, 1824 -

The Republican Congressional Caucus votes in favor of Crawford and Albert Gallatin as Republican running mates. 

August 15, 1824 -

Marquis de Lafayette arrived at the behest of President Monroe to tour the U.S. to celebrate the upcoming 50th anniversary of the U.S. and rally patriotism in the nation.

February 9, 1825:

The House voted and Speaker of the House Henry Clay supported John Q. Adams, even though Andrew Jackson won the popular vote. Adams won a majority on the first ballot. John Quincy Adams was elected President and John Calhoun was elected Vice President

. February 12, 1825

Jacksonians charged there was a "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay after Adams named Clay secretary of state. 

Campaign Issues: 

Domestic:

Use of the Congressional Party Caucus to nominate candidates and the spread of democratic institutions and expanding the franchise to vote; Internal improvements and the "American System;" Impact of the Missouri Compromise, Tariff of 1824

Foreign: Adding territory west of the Mississippi; Monroe Doctrine 

Key States: ( Election of 1824)

Maryland: Jackson defeated Adams to win 7 electoral votes based on a 109-vote majority (less than .5%), but, due to the district voting system, Adams only received 3 of the 11 total electoral votes. If he had been awarded the full complement of electors he would have tied Jackson.

New York: During the contingent election, Stephen Van Rensselaer decided to buck the recommendation of Martin Van Buren to support Crawford and gave a majority of the continent's 34 votes to Adams. 
Ohio: Clay was victorious, but by only 1.5% of the popular vote over Jackson which would have made his electoral lead much more commanding.

"I cannot believe that killing 2,500 Englishmen at New Orleans qualifies for the various, difficult, and complicated duties of the Chief Magistracy

- Henry Clay January 29, 1825

"One of the most disgraceful transactions that ever covered with infamy the republican ranks."

Pennsylvania Representative George Krame January 25, 1825 

"The Judas of the West has closed the contract and will receive the thirty pieces of silver." -

Andrew Jackson

Election of 1828

Summary:

Introduction:
The 1828 presidential election marked a significant shift in voting practices and campaign strategies. Only Delaware and South Carolina involved state legislatures in selecting electors. Other states used popular voting, with some employing a district system.
The election featured personal attacks, with Adams avoiding campaigning and Jackson organizing events. Over 1 million new voters participated, leading to a Jackson victory and the rise of the Democratic Party.The results of the 1828 election marked the start of the Second Party System and reshaped American politics.

Major Candidates (Parties): John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts - Incumbent (National Republican); Andrew Jackson, Tennessee - Senator (Democrat) 

John Eaton

Senator from Tennessee that acted as one of Jackson's main campaign advisors. He would publish the Wyoming Letters and coordinate campaign activities which he did not want Jackson to take part in 

Martin van Buren -

Gubernatorial candidate in New York under the Jacksonian-Democrat ticket and helped coordinate Jackson's win in New York and nationally as he pushed for the separation of the Democrats as a standalone party 

Duff Green

 Owner and editor of The United States Telegraph in Washington D.C. that acted as a mouthpiece for the Jackson campaign and spearheaded attacks on Adams 

John C. Calhoun -

Vice President that would run under Jackson rather than Adams becoming only the second person to serve in that position for two different presidents 

Richard Rush

Pennsylvanian who served as secretary of treasury under Adams and became his running mate in 1828 

 March 2, 1826

U.S. Rep. George McDuffie of South Carolina proposed basing the election of Presidential electors by popular vote. The "Jackson amendment" did not pass, but many states adopted the "General Ticket" system to choose electors.

September 1826 -

William Morgan disappeared and the Anti-Masonic movement began with the party forming in February 1828 and largely supporting Adams

January 4, 1828

John Quincy Adams was nominated for reelection by a convention in Pennsylvania; Governor John A. Schulze was named as the running mate, but declined the offer.

 January 8, 1828 -

Jackson began his campaign in New Orleans on the anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans. He was advised to take no active part in the actual campaign. 

Campaign Issues: 

Domestic:

Corrupt Bargain, Tariff of 1828, American System, Bank of the United States, federal office holders, control of federal lands and Native American lands; Jacksonites sought to show prior support from the recently deceased Thomas Jefferson and his thoughts about Jackson were debated in the press, Anti-Masonic movement (Jackson was a Mason) 

The Coffin Handbill appeared in several forms accusing Jackson of murder for executing soldiers, dueling, and other charges. 

Adams was said to have acted as a "pimp" for the Czar of Russia during his service as a diplomat for the U.S. 

Attacks on the reputation of both Jackson's mother and wife appeared. The attacks on his wife focused on the fact that she was still married when they first became a couple, which facilitated them having a second marriage ceremony. 

The Wyoming Letters were written by John Eaton and issued as a pamphlet seeking to increase the popularity of Jackson by highlighting his biography.

Campaign Issues: 

Foreign:

Relations with South America democracies, expansion of territory, 

boundaries with British Canada 

Key States: (1828)

Illinois, Louisiana, and New York all flipped from significant or total support for Adams in 1824 to Jackson in 1828 

"Should Mr Adams be re-elected and should his administration continue to act on the policy of wholly disregarding the feelings and interests of the Southern States; should they push the manufacturing system, to the point of annihilating our foreign commerce, and above all, should they meddle with our Slave institutions, I would not be answerable for the consequences.

 - Robert Y. Hayne to Andrew Jackson, September 3, 1828.

"I recall with pleasure the remembrance of our joint labors while in the Senate together in times of great trial and of hard battling, battles indeed of words, not of blood, as those you have since fought so much for your own glory & that of your country; with the assurance that my attempts continue undiminished, accept that of my great respect & consideration."

Thomas Jefferson, 1825 "

One might as well make a sailor of a cock, or a soldier of a goose, as a President of Andrew Jackson."

Thomas Gilmer quoting Thomas Jefferson printed in the Illinois Intelligencer December 1, 1827 

Election of 1844 

Summary: 

Henry Clay was a key political figure from 1812 to 1850, known for his presidential ambitions, particularly in 1844. After President Harrison's death, Vice President John Tyler took office but struggled with party support, becoming a non-factor in politics. This opened the way for James Polk, who unexpectedly won the Democratic nomination after many ballots. Clay's opposition to Texas annexation hurt his Southern support, and his attempts to clarify his stance with letters backfired. Polk, a strong advocate for expansion and Manifest Destiny, ultimately won the election despite a close popular vote. This election marked significant changes in party processes and state electoral practices.

Major Candidates (Parties): Henry Clay, Kentucky - former Senator (Whig); James K. Polk - former Governor of Tennessee (Democrat); James G. Birney, Alabama - former Mayor of Huntsville (Liberty

John C. Calhoun

secretary of war at the end of the Tyler Administration that made the annexation of Texas even more controversial with the release of the Pakenham Letter and was instrumental in keeping the Democratic nomination from Van Buren 

Lewis Cass -

Michigan politician and Ambassador to France who had served as secretary of war under Jackson; he was one of the top candidates to win the Democratic nomination, but his supporters could not agree with Van Buren's camp on which candidate to support and give the needed majority

George M. Dallas

Rival Pennsylvanian Democratic politician to James Buchanan who was a diplomat that favored Van Buren before becoming Polk's running mate 

Theodore Frelinghuysen

- New Jersey Senator and Chancellor of New York University who was chosen as Clay's vice president in hopes his religious background would blunt attacks claiming Clay favored immoral behaviors. 

Andrew Jackson -

Former president and mentor to Polk that pushed for his nomination and helped convince Tyler not to campaign for reelection

Richard Mentor Johnson

Former vice president under Martin Van Buren who had a military background and was famous for defeating Tecumseh, he was briefly thought of as a compromise candidate for the Democrats 

Joseph Smith -

Mormon leader that began a presidential campaign from Illinois with the new Reform Party, but was killed on June 27, 1844 

John Tyler -

Incumbent President that wanted to be elected in his own right and held a rival convention in Baltimore during the Democratic Party's nomination event; he was nominated for the Tyler Democratic or new Democratic-Republican Party, but withdrew after assurances that Texas would be annexed 

Martin Van Buren

Former president who was the leading candidate for the Democratic nomination, but his public comments against the annexation of Texas made it impossible for him to get above 146 votes at the convention, falling short of the needed 177 

April 17, 1844 -

Clay issued the Raleigh Letter outlining his position against annexation. 

April 20, 1844 -

Martin Van Buren sent his letter to William Henry Hammett which explained his opposition to annexing Texas. 

May 1, 1844

Whig Convention in Baltimore began

May 27, 1844 -

Democratic Convention in Baltimore began.

June 8, 1844 -

Tyler's annexation treaty was defeated in the Senate. 

June 19, 1844

Polk issued the letter to John Kane where he opposed protective tariffs

July 27, 1844

 Clay released the Alabama Letter, stating that he did not object to annexation personally, but feared possible repercussions. 

August 25, 1844 -

 Tyler withdrew from the presidential election.

August 30, 1843 -

The Liberty Party held its 1843 national convention in Buffalo, New York

Campaign Issues: 

Domestic:

Annexation of Texas; Boundary of Oregon Territory; Expansion of slavery 

Clay attacked for card playing, drinking, and womanizing 

Polk was called a member of the Locofocos faction and a radical that was looking to advance the power of slaveholders 

Campaign Issues: 

Foreign:  

Calhoun's Pakenham Letter; Manifest destiny; Texas annexation and relations with Mexico; Oregon dispute with UK

Key States: (1844)

New York: The votes won by the Liberty party were three times the amount needed for Clay to defeat Polk in the state. Its 36 electoral votes would have flipped the election to Clay. 

Pennsylvania: Clay lost the states' 26 votes by less than 2% with the Liberty Party capturing about 1% Indiana: 1.5% of the vote went to the Liberty Party. Clay lost the 12 electoral votes to Polk by just over that total. 

Georgia: Clay lost to Polk by around 2,000 votes. 

Louisiana: Clay lost by a mere 699 votes. 

*All these states had voted for the Harrison on the Whig ticket in 1840 

Tennessee: Polk lost his home state by .1% becoming the first winning candidate to do so. 

"It has been well observed that the office of President of the United States should neither be sought nor declined. I have never sought it, nor should I feel at liberty to decline it, if conferred upon me by the voluntary suffrages of my fellow citizens."

- James K. Polk, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1845 

Hey you are doin great!

:3