What are the three main types of research? Basic Research: Increases knowledge and understanding. Example: How does social media impact self-esteem?

Basic Research

Research aimed at increasing knowledge and understanding.

Applied Research

Research that applies findings to improve human conditions.

Evaluation Research

Research that evaluates the effectiveness of programs.

Description (Goal of Research)

Describes patterns of behavior or emotions.

Prediction (Goal of Research)

Predicts future behavior based on certain variables.

Explanation (Goal of Research)

Explains why behaviors occur.

Public Verification

A principle that research findings should be published and replicable.

Solvable Problems

Research focuses on investigating answerable questions.

Systematic Empiricism

Using structured observations to draw conclusions in research.

Conceptual Definition

Abstract, dictionary-like definitions of terms.

Operational Definition

Measurable definitions used in a study.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning that starts with a theory and leads to hypotheses.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning that starts with observations and leads to theories.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable proposition.

Theory

A broader explanation that accounts for relationships between concepts.

Pseudoscience

Claims that masquerade as science but violate scientific criteria.

Quantitative Measures

Research methods that use numerical data.

Qualitative Measures

Research methods that use descriptive or observational data.

Descriptive Research Methodology

Research that describes behaviors.

Correlational Research Methodology

Research that examines relationships without establishing causation.

Experimental Research Methodology

Research that manipulates an independent variable and uses random assignment.

Quasi-Experimental Research Methodology

Research that lacks random assignment and has less control.

Systematic Variance

Variance that is related to the independent variable and is controllable.

Error Variance

Random variance unrelated to the independent variable.

Mean (Measure of Central Tendency)

The average score in a data set.

Median (Measure of Central Tendency)

The midpoint score in an ordered list of scores.

Mode (Measure of Central Tendency)

The score that occurs most frequently in a data set.

Range (Measure of Dispersion)

The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a data set.

Variance (Measure of Dispersion)

The extent to which scores deviate from the mean.

Standard Deviation (Measure of Dispersion)

The square root of variance.

Observational Data

Data collected through methods of observing behaviors.

Disguised Observation

Observation where participants are unaware they are being observed.

Undisguised Observation

Observation where participants are aware they are being observed.

Partial Concealment Observation

Participants know they are being observed but not what is being observed.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural context without intervention.

Participant Observation

Researcher actively engages with subjects while observing.

Contrived Observation

Observation conducted in a controlled setting.

Response Sets

Bias in responses unrelated to item content.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency for participants to respond in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

Nominal Scale

A scale that consists of labels or categories.

Ordinal Scale

A scale that ranks data.

Interval Scale

A scale with equal differences between points but no true zero.

Ratio Scale

A scale with equal differences and a true zero.

Inter-Rater Reliability

The level of agreement between different raters.

Test-Retest Reliability

The consistency of a measure over time.

Inter-Item Reliability

The consistency among items in a scale.

Face Validity

The extent to which a measure appears valid on the surface.

Construct Validity

The degree to which a measure relates to theoretical concepts.

Criterion-Related Validity

The correlation of a measure with real-life outcomes.

Probability Sample

A sample where the likelihood of selection is known.

Nonprobability Sample

A sample where the likelihood of selection is unknown.

Stratified Random Sampling

Dividing a population into subgroups and randomly sampling from each.

Cluster Sampling

Randomly selecting entire groups or clusters from a population.

Convenience Samples

Samples taken from a group that is easily accessible.

Utilitarian Approach (IRB)

The approach that benefits must outweigh harm in research.

Scientific Misconduct

Behaviors like falsification, fabrication, and plagiarism in research.

Vulnerable Populations

Groups at higher risk in research, such as children and prisoners.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure indicating the direction and magnitude of a relationship.

Causation in Correlation Studies

Correlational studies cannot determine causation.

Restricted Range Effect

When limited data obscures true relationships.

Manipulation of IV

The act of changing the independent variable in an experiment.

Internal Validity Threats

Factors that can bias the outcome of an experimental study.

Experimenter's Dilemma

The challenge of balancing internal and external validity.

Main Effects

The individual impact of an independent variable in an experiment.

Interaction Effects

The combined effect of multiple independent variables in an experiment.

Type I Error

A false positive error in hypothesis testing.

Type II Error

A false negative error in hypothesis testing.

Significant p-value

A p-value that is less than 0.05, indicating statistical significance.

Difference between Experiments and Quasi-Experiments

Experiments involve random assignment; quasi-experiments do not.

ABA Design

A research design that includes baseline, intervention, and a return to baseline.