Psychology: Classical & Operant Conditioning, Memory, and Intelligence Theories

Associative Learning

- Pairing two things together (cause and effect)

Classical Conditioning

- Transferring a response from one thing to a different thing

- Ivan Pavlov

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Before conditioning; a stimulus does not naturally bring about the response of interest (Bell)

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned (Food)

Unconditioned Response

Natural, innate response that is not associated with previous learning (Salivation)

Conditioned Stimulus

A NS that has been paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused only by the UCS

Conditioned Response

After conditioning; response that follows a previously NS

Behaviorism

- Study of observable behavior

- John Watson

- Cause & Effect

- Little Albert Study

Classical vs Operant

- Behavior is involuntary reaction | Behavior is voluntary action

- Learner is passive. | Learned is active

- Signal is generally placed before response. | A reinforcing/punishing stimulus after behavior

- Organisms learn associations between events they don't control. | Organisms learn associatations between their behavior and resulting events

Operant Conditioning

- Type of learning process in which controlled behaviors are influenced by consequences

- Punishment and Rewards

- Skinner box

Reinforcement

A consequence that encourages a behavior

Punishment

A consequence that discourages a behavior

Positive Punishment

A consequence that adds something after the behavior

Negative Punishment

A consequence that removes something after a behavior

Schedules: Ratio vs. Interval

Ratio: Schedule adheres to repetition (How many?); Interval: Schedule adheres to time (How long?)

Schedules: Fixed vs. Variable

Fixed: Schedule never changes

Variable: Schedule is unpredictable (How consistent)

Most effective to learn a new behavior

Positive Reinforcement

More Effective Schedule?

Variable is ore effective than fixed bc the unpredictability keeps subject more motivated

What are the schedules of Reinforcment

- Continuous: Behavior is reinforced or punished every time it occurs

- Partial: Behavior is reinforced or punished only some of the time it occurs

Observational Learning: Modeling

Learning by performing a behavior while someone else is watching.

Who popularized the concept of observational learning?

Albert Bandura, known for the Bobo Doll study.

What did the Bobo Doll study demonstrate?

Children's behavior depended on whether they observed aggressive or nice behavior from adults.

What are the three main elements of memory?

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

What happens during the encoding process?

- Information is acquired, processed, and moved from short-term to long-term memory.

- Elaboration also occurs

What is elaboration in the context of memory?

Making connections between new information and pre-existing information in memory.

What are the three main systems of storage in memory?

Sensory Storage, Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory.

Where does memory input come from?

Sensory Info: Audible, Visual, Haptic (touch)

What is sensory memory?

- Stores sensory information

- VERY accurate, but only store for a few seconds.

Working Memory

- Hold info temporarily while we use it to perform tasks

- Held 15-25 seconds if not rehearsed

- 7 ± 2 items.

- Doesn't necessarily go to long-term

- Rehearsal

What is rehearsal in memory?

Repeating information to yourself to keep it in working memory.

What is encoding in memory?

Committing info from working to long-term

What is long-term memory?

- A permanent-ish memory storage

- Unlimited capacity, supposedly. We don't live long enough to find out.

What is storage decay?

Forgetting information over time.

What is retrieval in memory?

Pulling information from long-term memory to working memory.

Long Term Memory Systems

- Explicit (Conscious)) and Implicit (Unconscious)

- Explicit: Episodic and Semantic

Implicit: Procedure and Classical Conditioning

What is episodic memory?

Explicit/conscious: Memory of events from your life.

What is semantic memory?

Explicit/conscious: Memory of facts and information.

What is procedural memory?

Implicit: Memory for performing tasks or actions, often referred to as 'muscle memory.'

What is classical conditioning in terms of memory?

- Emotional Memory

- Implicit memory for emotional associations with objects.

What parts of Retrieval? Difference between the two?

Recall is remembering without cues, while recognition is remembering with cues.

What is the serial position effect?

The tendency to better remember items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list.

What is the General Intelligence Theory?

- symbol: g

- Spearman's Theory

- How well you can solve problems and learn new things

- How quickly you can think through things

- Ex: Learning things quickly. Understand hard topics. etc.

Who is founder of the Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence Theory?

Cattel's Theory

Crystalized Intelligence

- Acquired knowledge: how much you know

- "Book smarts"

- Improve as age

ex: Extensive vocab

Fluid Intelligence

- How well you can understand relationships between concepts

- Problem Solving

- Similiar to general intelligence

- Declines w age

ex: Learn calc quickly, application of previous mat

What is Triarchic Intelligence

- Sternberg's Theory

- Three Parts: Practical, Analytical, Creative

Practical Intelligence

- Apply knowledge to help get thru life

- "Common sense" or "Street Smarts"

ex: Know how to interact w people, identifying danger

Analytical Intelligence

- Ability to analyze things and solve problems

- Similar to Fluid Intelligence

ex: Being able to identify theme of novel. Identify murderer from clues. etc. Sherlock Holmes loll

Creative Intelligence

- Ability to think of novel solutions to problems

- "Think outside the box"

ex: Martian, farm potatoes on mars

What is the theory of Multiple Intelligences?

- Gardner Theory

- Every domain of human activity has an intelligence

- Problem is that it's hard to test this intelligence

ex: Book smart, picture smart, logic smart, etc

What is Emotional Intelligence, where does it stem from?

- Offshoot of Gardner's Theory

- Ability to understand your emotions and the emotions of others

- Understand social cues and relationships

- Empathy

ex: Good salesperson or just a "good listener" type of friend

IQ Test

- Intelligence Quotient

- Most common used measure of intelligence

- Lower Limit = 0

- Upper: 200 (practical limit)

- Below 70 = mental disability

- Above 130 = gifted

- 95% 70 - 130

- 68% 85 - 115

What is the Stanford-Binet Test

- First widely used IQ test

- Developed by standford prof based on Alfred Binet work

- Goal: Asses children to identify intelligence deficiencies.

What is the WISC test?

- Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

- Most common IQ test for children

- David Wechsler

- Test cognitive ability in 5 diff domains

What is the WAIS Test?

- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

- Most common IQ test for adults

- same test but for adults

Nature vs Nurture in IQ

- Large genetic effects: About 70-80%

- More stimulating environments associated with higher IQ later in life (books, opportunity to learn, etc.)

What is the Range of Reaction?

- Genetically-set potential range for intelligence, but environment determines where IQ falls with that range

What is amnesia and how many types?

- Loss of memory generally caused by trauma (brain damage or disease)

- 2 types: Retrograde, Antergrade

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to remember events that occurred prior to trauma

Anterograde Amnesia

- An inability to remember new information

- Only episodic and semantic memory affected

- Can learn new skills through repetition

What is a Blackout?

- Excessive drinking can cause blackouts: A complete lack of memory of the time of intoxication

- Anterograde Amnesia

- Caused by lack of encoding

- Memories aren't lost, just never formed

What are False Memories and why do they form?

- A memory of something that did not actually occur, or a distorted memory of something that did occur

- Reconstructive: Every time remember something, brain rebuilds memory using context clues. Context clues can change, thus false memories.

Problems w Eyewitness Testimony?

Eyewitness testimony has repeatedly been shown to be unreliable and vulnerable to suggestion

What are Repressed Memories?

- Holding memories in

- It's possible victims of childhood abuse repress memories, only to recall them years later

- Many memories recovery techniques are suggestive

How many ways to Enhance Memory

- Chunking, Rehearsal, Elaborative Rehearsal, Mnemonic, Photographic Memory, Method of Loci

Chunking

- Grouping information to make it easier to remember, increase memory capacity

- Working memory is limited to 7 +- two pieces of info

Rehearsal

- Frequently rehearing information leads to less forgetting

- Over time can rehearse less

Elaborative Rehearsal

Repeating information while drawing connections to other ideas or concepts you already know

Mnemonic

- Memory aids that make associations between seemingly unrelated topics

- More unusual easier to remember

Photographic Memory

- The ability to recall information (like a textbook page) with photographic precision

- No evidence that photographic memory is real

What is Eidetic Memory?

Being able to hold a picture in your mind in great detail (as though it were in front of you)

- Only lasts for a few minutes

- Very rare in children, even rarer in adults

- Scientific proven version of photographic essentially

Method of Loci

- Using a mental location as a mnemonic to remember information

- Associated an imagined physical space w info you want to remember