VCE PHYSICAL EDUCATION
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80 Terms
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Movement skills can be classified as
Open, closed, Gross, Fine, Discrete, Serial, Continuous
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The Classification of a skill is based on
1. The way that the movement is organised
2. The importance of the motor and cognitive elements
3. The level of environmental predictability
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Fundamental Movement skills:
are the skills that are the basis of all movements in sport. They are basic movement patterns learned and form the foundation for further sport specific skills
* Stability skills – involving balance and control of the body
* Locomotor skills – involve moving the body through space e.g. running
* Manipulative skills – involve control of an object e.g. catching
Extra info: Fundamental motor skill development is influenced by sociocultural factors, in addition to the participation in sport, which then leads to greater sport specific development opportunities, resulting in improved performance in the sport – and thus continued participation (health benefits).
* Stability skills – involving balance and control of the body
* Locomotor skills – involve moving the body through space e.g. running
* Manipulative skills – involve control of an object e.g. catching
Extra info: Fundamental motor skill development is influenced by sociocultural factors, in addition to the participation in sport, which then leads to greater sport specific development opportunities, resulting in improved performance in the sport – and thus continued participation (health benefits).
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Sport specific skills:
Utilise a range of fundamental movement skills in a sequence. Eg: For an AFL kick it requires running, balance, control of the ball in the hand, coordination of the leg muscles to perform the kicking action.
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Movement precision
Gross, Fine
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Fine Motor Skills:
are delicate, precise movements that engage the use of small muscle groups.
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Gross motor Skills:
are movements involving the use of large muscle groups that result in a coordinated action. Eg: Throwing, hitting
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Type of movement
Discrete, Serial, Continuous
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Discrete motor Skills:
Involve movements of brief duration and they are easily defined by a distinct beginning and end Eg: Throw, Catch
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Serial motor Skills:
are a group of discrete skills strung together to create a more complicated, skilled action
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Continuous motor Skills:
have no distinct beginning or end, these movements may continue for several minutes, often involving tracking movements Eg: Swimming, running, Pedalling on a bike
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Predictability of movement
Open, Closed
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Closed Motor Skills:
are performed in a predictable, self-pacing environment where there are no interruptions or changes in the surroundings, one where the individual is able to control the outcome. The athlete often tries to replicate the exact movement each time in a closed skill, Closed skills are simpler to learn as they are practised under predictable conditions and lack the external pacing of open skills. Eg: a gymnast tries to perform the exact same vault with perfect form
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Open Motor Skills
are performed in a constantly changing, externally paced environment. Eg: the changing proximity of an opponent.
These changes force the performer to adapt his or her basic motor skills
These changes force the performer to adapt his or her basic motor skills
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Movement Constraints: Types as well
are factors related to the individual task and environment that influence movement. Individual Constraints, Task related constraints, Environmental related constraints
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Individual Constraints
are those that are internal to the performer, these include body structure, fitness, psychological factors and genetics, these can be categorised as structural or functional. Structural constraints relate to the body structure the individual, individual growth patterns, body size, flexibility, physiological capacity and body composition. Functional constraints relate to behaviours, Skill learning, attention, anxiety, perceptual ability and information processing skills
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task related constraints:
include the rules of the game, equipment used and the speed and accuracy required
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Environmental related constraints
are those that are external to the individual such as the weather, sociocultural restraints and gravity
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Examples for each of the Constraints
* Coaches. A coach may have an athlete who has an unorthodox yet effective technique. A coach may come to the realisation that the body structure of this athlete is the reason for their style (individual constraint — structural). Instead of forcing the athlete to use a more traditional technique, they may work with the uniqueness of the individual and adapt their coaching to make further improvement.
* Physical Education teachers. A Physical Education teacher who is teaching softball to a group of primary school students may change the environment by using a tee rather than having a pitcher. This change to the environment will help the students to experience success and improve their skill. A teacher may also change the task by reducing the boundaries of the field to provide students with the opportunity to develop the skills of completing offensive plays in a confined space (task constraint)
* Athletes. If athletes are able to understand the factors that affect performance, they are able to 1) make the correct decisions and 2) adapt their technique in various conditions. If an athlete is able to gather information about their environment, including weather conditions and proximity of a team member, then they are able to select the appropriate skill to use (environmental constraint). For example, when kicking a soccer ball in the wet, a player will need to change the way he or she kicks the ball because the ball will bounce differently when it lands.
* Physical Education teachers. A Physical Education teacher who is teaching softball to a group of primary school students may change the environment by using a tee rather than having a pitcher. This change to the environment will help the students to experience success and improve their skill. A teacher may also change the task by reducing the boundaries of the field to provide students with the opportunity to develop the skills of completing offensive plays in a confined space (task constraint)
* Athletes. If athletes are able to understand the factors that affect performance, they are able to 1) make the correct decisions and 2) adapt their technique in various conditions. If an athlete is able to gather information about their environment, including weather conditions and proximity of a team member, then they are able to select the appropriate skill to use (environmental constraint). For example, when kicking a soccer ball in the wet, a player will need to change the way he or she kicks the ball because the ball will bounce differently when it lands.
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Extra info to read
Fundamental motor skill proficiency has been associated with subsequent physical activity and also with change in physical activity over time, highlighting that children with high fundamental motor skill proficiency show little decline in physical activity. In addition, positive associations have been established between fundamental motor skill proficiency and objectively measured physical activity in overweight children’
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Link between motor skill development and participation and performance
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Familial advantage
the influence that parents or siblings can have on a movement skill development
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Qualitative analysis
is the systematic observation of the quality of human movement for the purpose of providing the most appropriate intervention to improve performance, a more thorough qualitative analysis involves observing a movement and using a set of principles to provide feedback about the effectiveness of the movement
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4 Tasks of qualitative analysis
Preparation, Observation, Evaluation, Error correction
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Preparation
The first task in this analysis is to gain relevant knowledge. During this phase, they must gather information about
1. The critical features of the skill( parts of a movement that are important success)
This information can be gathered from experience, expert opinion or scientific research.
2. Information about the performers
A coach will be the most effective in analysing a skill if they understand the physiological and psychological variables that influence movement skill performance. Factors such as age, gender, strengths and weaknesses, skill level and body dimensions can affect the performance expectations as well as the type of analysis and feedback given to the athlete
3. Details about the observation stage
will be outlined during the preparation stage. Those conducting the analysis will decide whether an individual player or a whole play will be recorded. They will also consider the vantage point from which the observation will occur, whether the data will be collected in the field or the laboratory and the number of observations made
4. What constitutes effective instruction
The type of instruction and feedback provided to the performer will vary dependent on their cognitive ability, knowledge of the sport, experience and motivation. The analyst should consider how they will show results, how much information will be shared and the specific tools that they will use to help the performer improve their skill.
1. The critical features of the skill( parts of a movement that are important success)
This information can be gathered from experience, expert opinion or scientific research.
2. Information about the performers
A coach will be the most effective in analysing a skill if they understand the physiological and psychological variables that influence movement skill performance. Factors such as age, gender, strengths and weaknesses, skill level and body dimensions can affect the performance expectations as well as the type of analysis and feedback given to the athlete
3. Details about the observation stage
will be outlined during the preparation stage. Those conducting the analysis will decide whether an individual player or a whole play will be recorded. They will also consider the vantage point from which the observation will occur, whether the data will be collected in the field or the laboratory and the number of observations made
4. What constitutes effective instruction
The type of instruction and feedback provided to the performer will vary dependent on their cognitive ability, knowledge of the sport, experience and motivation. The analyst should consider how they will show results, how much information will be shared and the specific tools that they will use to help the performer improve their skill.
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Observation
During this task, the skill is recorded, this can occur by watching the performer or digitally recording them performing the movement. The details of this observation will be planned during the preparation. The observation task involves the actual recording of the skill
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Evaluation
The critical features that were established during the preparation and the observations made during the observation are used to identify errors and positive aspects of the performers technique. This is achieved by the sequential or mechanical method.
The sequential method involves comparing mental pictures of body positions throughout each phase of movement.
The mechanical method involves the application of various mechanical principles such as sequential rotation of body segments, optimal body positions for force development and joint range of motion. The performance of each critical feature can be then ranked as inadequate, within the desirable range or excessive
The sequential method involves comparing mental pictures of body positions throughout each phase of movement.
The mechanical method involves the application of various mechanical principles such as sequential rotation of body segments, optimal body positions for force development and joint range of motion. The performance of each critical feature can be then ranked as inadequate, within the desirable range or excessive
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Error Correction
the analyst can use the information of strengths and weaknesses of the performers technique to improve the players performance, they can provide physical conditioning, modified practice, or provide the performer with a visual model, manual or mechanical guidance. Error correction is very important in qualitative analysis and needs to be planned out thoroughly
**Methods of Error correction**
* Feedback
* Modify practice
* Exaggeration
* Visual model
* Manual guidance
* Mechanical guidance
**Methods of Error correction**
* Feedback
* Modify practice
* Exaggeration
* Visual model
* Manual guidance
* Mechanical guidance
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Direct approaches to coaching and instruction
coach- orientated instruction model in which learners are given explicit instructions about skill execution and tactical awareness.
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Advantages of of Direct approach
* The instructor-centred approach keeps the learners ‘on task’.
* It provides a predictable/closed environment to assist the beginner skill learner.
* It facilitates early-stage skill learning.
* Improvements in practice performance are rapid compared with indirect
instruction.
* There is an emphasis on mastering technique.
* The learner is provided with a set of rules to guide decision making.
* It provides a predictable/closed environment to assist the beginner skill learner.
* It facilitates early-stage skill learning.
* Improvements in practice performance are rapid compared with indirect
instruction.
* There is an emphasis on mastering technique.
* The learner is provided with a set of rules to guide decision making.
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Constraints based coaching
a form of coaching that involves placing restrictions or boundaries on a performer in order to encourage or enhance the development of a particular skill
Types, Individual, task and Environmental
Types, Individual, task and Environmental
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Constraint coaching: Individual
e.g. body size, strength, grouping of similarly skilled performers, fitness levels
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Constraint coaching: Task
rules of game, field dimensions, player numbers, equipment
This allows for more self-organizing movement to be developed as the performer aligns perception with performance, however, may not be suitable for performer’s who cannot perform skill in open game-simulation environment
This allows for more self-organizing movement to be developed as the performer aligns perception with performance, however, may not be suitable for performer’s who cannot perform skill in open game-simulation environment
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Constraint coaching: Environmental
e.g. physical environment, surface, weather
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Indirect instruction
the indirect approach allows the learner to discover effective skills and performance strategies for themselves.
slower
slower
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Advantages of indirect instruction
* Learner oriented
* Implicit learning
* Democratic
* Cooperative
* Discovery based learning
* Implicit learning
* Democratic
* Cooperative
* Discovery based learning
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3 stages of Learning
Cognitive(Beginner), associative(Intermediate), autonomous(Expert)
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Cognitive stage
is the initial phase of learning of a motor skill where the emphasis is on conscious understanding of the task requirements.
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Coaching the cognitive stage
* As the performer must dedicate a considerable amount of attention to understanding the skill, it is important the coach does not overload his or her learners with information. Coaches should keep feedback simple, only providing one or a maximum of two teaching points at any one time.
* Performers in the cognitive stage of learning benefit greatly from watching repeated demonstrations of effective technique.
* Verbal instruction should be clear and concise.
* The coach should provide feedback on the relative success of the performance, as well as provide the learner with strategies to correct faults.
* Performers in the cognitive stage of learning benefit greatly from watching repeated demonstrations of effective technique.
* Verbal instruction should be clear and concise.
* The coach should provide feedback on the relative success of the performance, as well as provide the learner with strategies to correct faults.
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Associative stage
the second phase in the learning of a new skill, in which movement patterns become more refined and consistent through practice.
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Coaching the associative stage
* Coaches must provide regular practice opportunities
* The learner should be exposed to a more‘ open’ competition environment where they learn to recognise important cues and develop their decision-making capabilities.
* Coaches should continue to assist the learners to recognise
why they have made an error and develop their ability to self-correct the error.
* The learner should be exposed to a more‘ open’ competition environment where they learn to recognise important cues and develop their decision-making capabilities.
* Coaches should continue to assist the learners to recognise
why they have made an error and develop their ability to self-correct the error.
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Autonomous stage
In the autonomous stage of learning, the learner can perform the skill almost ‘automatically’. The skill is ‘ingrained’ and ‘second-nature’ to the performer, with very little attention required for skill execution. A performer in the autonomous stage is able to multi-task.
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Coaching the autonomous stage
* The coach should provide precise feedback to further improve skill execution. Small improvements can make a significant difference at an elite/high level of sport.
* Pay particular attention to keeping the performers motivated to further improve and refine skill level.
* Use match simulation to enhance tactical knowledge and decision-making skills.
* Pay particular attention to keeping the performers motivated to further improve and refine skill level.
* Use match simulation to enhance tactical knowledge and decision-making skills.
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Sociocultural influences
are the combination of social and cultural factors that impact on an individual’s opportunities
to participate in particular sports or recreational activities and, in turn, develop the relevant movement skills.
to participate in particular sports or recreational activities and, in turn, develop the relevant movement skills.
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Types of Sociocultural influences
Family, Cultural norms, Peers, Gender, Socioeconomic status, Local community
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Family
Parents facilitate their children’s involvement in sport by driving them to practice, and buying uniforms and sports equipment, as well as funding registration fees. But more than meeting costs and providing logistical support, parents encourage their children to get involved and to apply themselves to practice. Parents have a significant impact on their children’s values and their attitude towards learning.
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Cultural norms
Different nationalities identify with different sports. The prevalence of a particular sport in a community can have a significant impact on skill development. For example, swimming is a high-profile sport in Australia. Our national swimmers receive a great deal of attention in the media and are afforded celebrity status. These high-profile swimmers become idols to Australian children and this, in turn, leads to greater participation in the sport of competitive swimming.
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Peers
Friends play an important role in influencing the type of sport children participate in and therefore the type of skills they develop. Younger athletes are generally motivated to play with their friends and will consequently choose and work on the sports popular with their social group.
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Gender
Girls and boys will be socialised into different sports. Some sports such as netball, softball and gymnastics can be seen as girls’ sports, while sports such as AFL football, rugby and boxing can be considered more masculine and therefore more suitable for boys. In recent times, many gender stereotypes in regard to sporting participation have been challenged, with an increasing number of women playing traditionally male- orientated sports.
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Socioeconomic status
Socioeconomic factors describe the social and economic status of a participant or their family based on income, occupation and education. Socioeconomic factors can have a strong influence on the type of sports people choose to play and consequently the skills they develop.
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Local community
As with previously mentioned sociocultural factors, the local community facilitates sporting development via the prevalence of suitable positive role models, conducive climatic conditions and natural resources, ease of access to safe training facilities and readily available coaching.
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Amount of practice
It is generally accepted that the more we practise, the more we learn. The more time an individual practises a new movement skill, the greater chance they have of mastering that skill.
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Maximising practice time
The general recommendation to facilitate effective skill learning within a limited time frame is to allow the learner to spend as much time as possible in meaningful practice.
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Time spent on task
Coaches must make on-balance decisions about how long they spend on one particular skill before they move on to another. A coach can’t afford to take a perfectionist approach to learning individual skills; rather they must be pragmatic about developing a degree of competence across a range of skills in the limited time available. The coach also runs the risk of their learners losing interest if they spend too long on a single skill or activity.
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Diminishing returns
states that as a performer becomes more competent in their skill performance and progresses to the latter stages of learning, there is a gradual reduction in the rate of improvement in skill performance \n in response to practice.
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Practice distribution
refers to the ratio between time spent actively practising and time spent resting during a practice session.
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Massed Practice
is a form \n of practice in which there is little or no rest between repeat performances of a skill.
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Distributed Practice
is a form of practice in which smaller practice time intervals are interspersed with rest periods
Extra info: is always better as it reduced the chance of physical and psychological fatigue, whislt also particularly benefitting cognitive learners who may require large amounts of external feedback, which can be delivered more easily during the larger periods of rest associated with distributed practice. However, practice distribution relies heavily upon the availability of participants.
Extra info: is always better as it reduced the chance of physical and psychological fatigue, whislt also particularly benefitting cognitive learners who may require large amounts of external feedback, which can be delivered more easily during the larger periods of rest associated with distributed practice. However, practice distribution relies heavily upon the availability of participants.
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Practice Variabilty
refers to the degree to which a coach varies the conditions in which skills are rehearsed, as well as the number and variety of skills that are practised in a particular training session.
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Blocked Practice
is a type of practice in which each skill component is practised repetitively as an independent block.
More suited to cognitive learner- due to repetition
More suited to cognitive learner- due to repetition
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Serial practice
form of practice that involves rehearsing different skills but in a fixed and relatively predictable sequence.
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Random Practice
is a form of practice that involves rehearsing a number of different skills in an unpredictable sequence.
\
More suited to associative and autonomous due to decision making
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More suited to associative and autonomous due to decision making
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Feedback
is information concerning the performance and/or outcome of a movement skill, including information about errors and how to correct them.
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Types of Feedback
Intrinsic, Augmented, Knowledge of performance, Knowledge of results
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Intrinsic Feedback
a form of feedback derived from the performer’s own senses e.g. visual, auditory, touch, and can be utilized to assess performance
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Augmented Feeback
a form of feedback derived from external sources to the performer’s own senses, and can be used to improve and align the performer’s own intrinsic feedback (creates a reference point for the development of more self-organizing skill execution)
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Augmented: Terminal Feedback
augmented feedback given at the completion of a skill performance.
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Augmented: Concurrent Feedback
Augmented given during a skill performance.
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Knowledge of performance
is feedback regarding how a \n skill is performed; assessing performance on the basis of process and skill technique.
Eg: a golfer is able to recognise they have a problem with their weight transferral after watching a video of their swing. It provides feedback on how the skill is performed, rather than the outcome or result of that skill performance
Eg: a golfer is able to recognise they have a problem with their weight transferral after watching a video of their swing. It provides feedback on how the skill is performed, rather than the outcome or result of that skill performance
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Knowledge of results
is information about the outcome of skill performance; information regarding the relative success or failure in regard to the intended goal of the movement skill.
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Knowledge of results: Correct vs incorrect feedback
Incorrect feedback focuses on the learner’s skill errors, while correct feedback focuses on what the learner is doing well. Correct feedback is important as a learner will be motivated to practise more if they are experiencing relative success. Incorrect feedback is crucial for effective skill learning; correcting skill errors in an effort to develop effective technique.
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Knowledge of results: Precision of feedback qualitative vs quantitative
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Precision of feedback: Qualitative feedback provides general feedback about movement skill performance; for example, a sprint coach tells their athlete ‘your hips are too high and your back leg is too straight in the set position during the sprint start and this is causing a lack of push off the rear block’.
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Precision of feedback: Qualitative feedback provides general feedback about movement skill performance; for example, a sprint coach tells their athlete ‘your hips are too high and your back leg is too straight in the set position during the sprint start and this is causing a lack of push off the rear block’.
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Knowledge of results: Prescriptive vs descriptive feedback
Prescriptive feedback refers to feedback that sets out recommendations about how to correct skill errors and how to improve future performances. Prescriptive feedback is well suited to the novice performer.
Descriptive feedback provides a detailed account of the process of skill performance. The performer digests this feedback and makes skill changes based upon the information they deem most pertinent. Descriptive feedback is more suitable for the experienced performer.
Descriptive feedback provides a detailed account of the process of skill performance. The performer digests this feedback and makes skill changes based upon the information they deem most pertinent. Descriptive feedback is more suitable for the experienced performer.
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Feedback Frequency
refers to how often an external source (e.g. coach) provides feedback to the skill learner.
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Summary Feedback
An effective strategy regarding feedback frequency is for the coach to only provide feedback after they watch a series of skill attempts. This is referred to as summary feedback. The advantage of summary feedback is that it allows the coach to address and prioritise the most significant and underlying causes of skill error.
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Faded Feedback
Feedback frequency is high at the beginning of a practice session but is progressively reduced the longer the session goes on. Learners initially process a relatively high amount of information regarding correct skill execution but are then given time to practise and apply this information.
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Bandwidth Feedback
The coach and athlete agree on an acceptable bandwidth of performance or margin of error. Precise, quantitative feedback is only supplied if the athlete’s performance falls outside these margins; for example, if a swimmer’s 100-metre training splits are five seconds too slow.
If the performance is within the bandwidth, the athlete is offered qualitative feedback; for example, ‘well done, your 100-metre split times are excellent’. How the bandwidth is set is influenced by the learner’s relative level of skill development; that is, an elite performer may have a narrow bandwidth, whereas the coach may accept a wider margin for error for a novice performer.
If the performance is within the bandwidth, the athlete is offered qualitative feedback; for example, ‘well done, your 100-metre split times are excellent’. How the bandwidth is set is influenced by the learner’s relative level of skill development; that is, an elite performer may have a narrow bandwidth, whereas the coach may accept a wider margin for error for a novice performer.
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Performer-regulated feedback versus
coach-regulated feedback
coach-regulated feedback
Performer-regulated feedback is feedback provided at the athlete’s request. This kind of self-regulated feedback is more suited to experienced performers. Often an elite performer is the best judge of the causes of their own skill errors and, as such, can request the most pertinent information to facilitate skill correction. Otherwise, for less experienced or novice performers, it is best that an experienced coach regulates the type and amount of feedback given to facilitate effective skill learning.
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Timing of feedback
refers to when feedback is provided to the skill learner in relation to their performance.
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Advantages of Concurrent Feedback
* it can have an immediate impact on skill performance
* it can provide greater opportunity
to receive feedback; that is, the performer does not have to wait until a designated rest period before receiving information regarding skill fault correction
* in physical, continuous sports such as rowing, cycling and kayaking, it’s important that training intervals are not interrupted. Concurrent feedback allows a coach to provide important information regarding skill performance without compromising the physiological benefits of the training session.
* it can provide greater opportunity
to receive feedback; that is, the performer does not have to wait until a designated rest period before receiving information regarding skill fault correction
* in physical, continuous sports such as rowing, cycling and kayaking, it’s important that training intervals are not interrupted. Concurrent feedback allows a coach to provide important information regarding skill performance without compromising the physiological benefits of the training session.
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