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Craton
Very old, strong, and stable continental crust, consisting of the oldest rocks on Earth.
Shield
Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks exposed at the surface, forming the core of continents.
Orogenesis
The process of mountain formation due to plate interactions, involving convergence and divergence.
Convergence
Mountains form where new crust has been added onto the craton. → ←
Subduction
Process where one tectonic plate moves under another, leading to the formation of volcanic arcs and fold-thrust belts.
Accretion of exotic terranes
Island fragments of continental crust with distinct geological histories merging at convergent margins.
Divergence
Mountains form where crust has been ripped apart from it. ← →
Continental to continental collisions
Convergence of continents leading to high-grade metamorphic rocks and fold-thrust belts.
Rotation
A change in spatial orientation by tilting.
Displacement
A change in location by fracturing. Examples include jointing and faulting.
Distortion
A change in shape by folding.
Brittle
Shallow in crust
Ductile
Deep in crust
Fault
Planar breaks in the crust showing displacement, classified by relative motion and geometry (e.g., normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip).
Anticline fold
Arch-shaped fold where limbs dip out and away from the hinge.
Syncline fold
Trough-shaped fold where limbs dip inward and toward the hinge.
Dome
Fold resembling an overturned bowl, exposing older rock in the center.
Basin
Fold shaped like an upright bowl, exposing younger rocks in the center.
Stress
Force applied across a unit area, leading to deformation.
Strain
Change in shape or volume in response to stress, with compression, tension, and shear as types of strain.
Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho)
A distinct boundary between the crust and the mantle where seismic waves are refracted.
Low-velocity zone (LVZ)
Occurs beneath the crust (from 100-200 km) - the asthenosphere.
P-wave shadow zone
Area where P-waves do not arrive at seismometers between 103° and 143° from the epicenter due to refraction.
S-wave shadow zone
Area where S-waves do not arrive at seismometers between 103° and 180° due to inability to travel through liquids.
Paleomagnetism
Studies how Earth's magnetic field is recorded in rocks, aiding in understanding past tectonic movements.
Ridge push
Force driven by gravitational energy associated with the topographic elevation of the mid-ocean ridge.
Slab pull
Force developed due to the denser old oceanic lithosphere sinking into the underlying asthenosphere.
Compression
Deformation shortens and thickens the crust.
Tension
Deformation lengthens and things the crust.
Shear
Deformation neither thickens or thins the crust.
Dip-slip faults
Characterized by blocks that move parallel to the dip of the fault (vertical).
Normal fault
Hanging wall moves down relative to footwall.
Reverse fault
Hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall - high angle > 30°.
Thrust fault
A type of reverse fault but with a low angle dip, < 30°.
Strike-slip fault
When blocks move parallel to the fault plane strike. Tend to be vertical.
Right lateral strike-slip fault
Fault block appears to move sideways and to the right past the observer’s block.
Left lateral strike-slip fault
Fault block appears to move sideways and to the left past the observer’s block.
Folds
Occur where rock has been deformed deep below the surface from tectonic compression (continental to continental convergent boundaries).