HIS 102 Midterm

Luddite Movement (or riots)

* Worker’s movement to destroy machines and burn down factories to get back how things used to be (better working/living conditions)

Trade Union

* Formed in the 1830s (many of the first were mining unions)
* Functioned under the idea of collective bargaining
* Masses of workers demand better pay and hours together

Trade Union Congress

* Formed in 1868, all trade unions working together

Strike

* The worker’s weapon, refusal to work

General Strike

* An even bigger weapon
* Everyone goes on strike, economic activity ceases

Conservatives

* Had been in control since the fall of Rome
* Didn’t like the Industrial Revolution or the urban working class
* Upper class, want no change, stuck in the past

Liberals

* Middle class (Bourgeoise) leaders of the Industrial Revolution
* Thinkers include Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, etc.
* Had no answers for the urban working class, were their enemy

David Ricardo/Iron Law of Wages

* States shouldn’t pay the workers more than required to survive, if you do they have power to start revolution and multiply

John Stuart Mill

* Author of “On Liberty”
* Often seen as the champion of the working man because he supported regulations on the worst industrial abuse
* Supported giving workers just enough to not revolt but not enough to change anything, cutting hours, and making factories nicer places with higher wages (secret enemy)

Charles Dickens/A Christmas Carol

* Book about factory owning liberals, scrooge embodies Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo

Socialism\*

* Governmental ownership of the means of production
* Believed the relationship between owner and worker was flawed, and that owners would never give the workers a fair share
* So, they sought to upend that system through DEMOCRACY
* The government, then, would more equitably share the wealth produced by industry

Utopian Socialism

* First group of socialists
* Believed in building new towns and cities with ideal working and living conditions, including New Lanark
* But, these factories/towns failed

Robert Owen

* Leader of the utopian socialist movement
* Vision didn’t work, loses a lot of his money

Evolutionary Socialism

* Believed that through education and elections, Socialism would slowly simply come to power
* Largely was a success
* Were fighting for police, education, public services/roads, military, and a more efficient route and oversight of Capitalism

Marxism (Communism)\*

* Founded by Karl Marx in his Communist Manifesto
* Believes that the clash between the haves and have nots will perhaps be the main driver of history
* Haves will never give the have nots an even break, so the have nots will have to seize power -- Marxism was a revolutionary ideology
* Believes an educated proletariat will rise and overthrow the owning class, then the people themselves would own the means of production
* The state, perhaps after a period of dictatorship, would fall away and governments, police, and armies would not be needed

Karl Marx/Communist Manifesto

* Father of Communism who wrote a book on his communist form of government

Anarchism

* Belief that government itself is wrong
* We should all have nothing but individual liberty
* Weak because if you band with another anarchist, you are no longer an anarchist

Evangelicalism\*

* Decided if the workers couldn’t/wouldn’t go to church, the church should come to them


* Preached all over from street corners, to factories, to bars -- the original Revivals
* Quickly spread to the Us and remains a dominant force, especially in the South
* Stopped revolutions from happening in Britain and the US

John Wesley/Methodists

* Represented the evangelicalism movement
* Gave hopeless people hope and helped halt revolutions

Charles Darwin/On The Origin of Species\*

* Studied animals in the Galapagos Islands, specifically finches, and how they differed from one island to another
* He wrote his book on these studies
* Developed the Theory of Evolution through the engine of natural selection
* This was the idea that humankind had developed from lower life forms
* Stands in opposition to a religious understanding of creation

Social Darwinism

* Derived from the idea of Darwinism, idea of de-evolution
* Very dangerous idea, belief that history is driven by a struggle for survival and dominance between the races
* Best personified by Adolf Hitler

Libertadore

* The leaders of revolt in Spanish colonies
* Most influential of these were Simon Bolivar and Jose De San Martin

Simon Bolivar\*

* Educated in Europe, but back in native Venezuela in time for its declaration of independence in 1810
* In the threat of invasion, he became one of the leaders of the patriot army
* Had huge ups and downs in his career
* Turned in one of his best friends as a defeatist
* At first, defeated the Spanish, but overplayed his hand and was exiled to Haiti
* Raised a new army and returned to Venezuela and launched the Admirable Campaign

Gran Columbia

* Created in 1819 because Bolivar wants something that resembles the United States in Latin America
* Names himself dictator with the ability to choose his own successor
* Collapses in 1831, shattering into the Latin American countries we know today
* These smaller nations were vulnerable, leading to the rise of caudillismo -- the tradition of charismatic landowning, and military leaders rising to power and becoming dictators

Jose De San Martin

* Argentine who fought in Spain against Napoleon
* Once Argentina proclaimed its independence, he returned home to offer her services to patriot army
* Commanded and created the Army of the Andes

Old Sarum/Manchester

* An issue with apportionment of representation in the counties
* The vote had not been reapportioned for over a century, and during that time, the population had shot up and moved to cities, so roughly 3% of the population is adequately represented
* Best illustrated by Old Sarum, which had virtually no population, but still sent 2 members to Parliament
* While industrial and urban cities, like Manchester and Birmingham, sent no one

Lord Grey

* The prime minister in Europe during this time
* Instead of fighting to keep rich landowners in power, he passes the Great Reform Act of 1832

Great Reform Act of 1832\*

* Reapportioning of the vote
* Stops forthcoming revolution
* Created a more democratic and representative system of government in England

Gladstone/Education Act

* Passed in 1870
* Created nationally funded schools and mandatory attendance in those schools
* Allowed poor people to vote and be educated

Charles Parnell

* British are moving into Northern Ireland, transitioning it to industrial and Protestant, but Southern Ireland is agricultural and Catholic
* Under British rule, the Irish have to be members of the Church of England (which is Protestant) and tithe
* So they begin to advocate for home rule
* Parnell tried to use political power to achieve this, but it failed until after WWI, remains a huge issue into the 1990s and even recently

Home Rule

* Political campaign for self-government by the Irish


* Led in part by Charles Parnell


* Largely a failure

French Revolution of 1848

* Starts under King Louis Philippe of France, absolute monarchy
* Middle class/liberals and urban, industrial poor had no say
* Class of workers want a say in the political system and want to be able to vote, but the king says no
* Paris Mob is formed and Louis Philippe flees to England

June Days

* Happens after the Liberals gut Socialist Louis Blanc’s government work program
* Worker’s mob pours out into the streets of Paris
* Middle Class sends in the army to break up the workers
* 4,000 were killed and 4,000 more deported
* Workers will have to wait for their chance again, pressure continues to build

Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon)

* Steps into the presidential election in the 2nd Republic
* Napoleon’s nephew who long thought that it was his destiny to replace his famous uncle
* Elected in a landslide, spends his two-year presidency gathering more power for himself
* Two years are up, calls on the army to keep him in power and arrests thousands of his political opponents
* Even has an election to name himself emperor - wins 97% of the vote
* France has slipped back into an absolute monarchy under a new Napoleon

Prussia/Hohenzollerns

* Prussia was ruled by the Hohenzollern family
* Lacks natural resources and people, has a strong army
* If you live in Prussia, you are in the military, protestant

Austria/Hapsburgs

* Austria was ruled by the Hapsburgs
* Old, established, catholic, “classic Germany”

Frederick William IV

* King of Prussia during the Revolution of 1848
* Disliked by wealthy liberals and workers
* Autocratic - absolute power
* Surprised by the Berlin Mob and flees to the countryside
* Prussia is taken over by the lower class

Frankfurt Assembly\*

* Attempt to unify Germany under a Liberal leadership
* Even makes a national army and develops a constitution
* Ultimately fails because it took over a year and kings had returned to their states and seized control of their militaries
* Made a military state, not a liberal one
* One of the greatest missed chances of history

William I

* New king of Prussia after Frederick William IV turns down Frankfurt Assembly
* Hires Otto von Bismarck because he is stupid and needs someone to lead the country for him

Otto von Bismarck\*

* Chief advisor to King William I, hates liberalism, pro divine right of kings
* Believer in Realpolitik - the end justifies the means
* Also a believer in the use of war as a diplomatic tool (blood and iron)

Realpolitik/Blood and Iron

* Favors realism and politics, will do anything it takes to reach his goal, no morals or rules, Machiavelli politics
* Belief that if the two German states are united, others will try to interfere because of Germany’s potential power, buys off other countries so they don’t get in his way

Danish War

* Denmark had a new king, Christian, that the overwhelming German citizens didn’t like
* Schleswig/Holstein wanted out, but Denmark wouldn’t allow it
* Sensing a big chance, Bismarck enlists Austrian aid and attacks and quickly defeats Denmark
* Works with his enemy Austria

Schleswig/Holstein

* Long owned by Denmark, but an overwhelming amount of Germans who lived there wanted to be part of Germany
* By 1864, they made up the vast majority of the population
* So Bismarck enlisted Austrian aid with the intention of taking over the two states

7 Weeks War (Austro-Prussian War)

* Bismarck accuses Austria of misrule in Holstein
* Austria declares war in June 1866
* Prussia invades Austria and wins the critical battle of Koniggratz
* Austria is crushed

Leopold von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringien

* Offered the Spanish throne by Bismarck
* Napoleon freaks out and threatens war, but Leopold backs out

Ems Dispatch

* Napoleon sends an ambassador to meet with William I at EMS
* William sends EMS Dispatch to Bismarck
* Bismarck makes the dispatch look like a confrontation and publishes it in the Parisian press, France demands war

Franco-Prussian War

* Begins in July 1870
* Due to superior staff work and professionalism, Prussians win the Battle of Sedan under the command of Moltke
* A crushing victory, but the war lingers
* Gives the illusion that future wars (such as WWI) will be quick and easy

Battle of Sedan

* Only battle of the Franco-PrussianWar
* Napoleon leads troops into war and is captured
* France is defeated, immediately following their is another French Revolution
* Prussians wait for revolution to resolve itself so they can sign a peace treaty

Treaty of Frankfurt\*

* Marks the end of the war
* Bismarck’s big mistake
* France is blamed for the war, made to pay for it, and occupied until they do
* Most importantly, France loses the states of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany

Alsace-Lorraine

* Otto von Bismarck takes these French provinces and gives them to the new state of Germany
* New generation of French people are taught that Germany is the enemy, ready for war

Reconstruction

* This period could have been truly revolutionary, but a lack of willpower on the part of the North, and a strong campaign of violence by southern whites (best represented by the KKK) meant that Reconstruction was largely a failure
* African Americans were free, but most remained agricultural laborers in the South, working in the same plantations
* Opportunities (political, economic, and educational) were very few, leaving the African American population to languish

Jim Crow\*

* Result of failed Reconstruction
* Laws separated the races -- African Americans were not allowed to vote, could not attend white schools, and could not serve on juries
* Lynching was legal
* In many ways, equal to slavery, if not worse
* With the failure of Reconstruction, America put off dealing with its race problems -- something it would have to face in the future

Abolition

* U.S. had long wrestled with the problem of slavery
* The South supported slavery, while the North did not
* The two sides struck many compromises to walk the tightrope between their beliefs
* But others outside the political arena pushed more strongly for abolition, or the end of slavery

Abraham Lincoln

* Elected president in 1860, his party (Republicans) ran against slavery
* Basic idea was not to end slavery immediately, but to not allow it to spread to the western territories
* Southern states realized that as the territories become states, this would upset the balance in the Senate between slave and free states, which could lead to legislation against slavery in the future
* Not wanting this, the southern states began to secede from the Union

Reinsurance Treaty

* Secret treaty Bismarck signed with Russia to keep them on his side
* This stops the progression to WWI

William II

* Grandson of William I, took over after he did
* Vain and arrogant, jealous of Bismarck
* Wanted more for Germany, wanted the country to supplant Britain as the main power in the world
* Bismarck was largely happy with where Germany was - William II wanted to press for world domination

Dual Alliance

* There were now two competing alliance systems in Europe
* Russia and France vs Germany and Austria
* Both were rather equal in size, and whichever of them could lure Britain to their side would be dominant

Boer War\*

* War between the British and the Boers
* Lasted from 1899-1902, classic mismatch; world’s most powerful empire against a few hundred thousand Dutch farmers
* War drug on for three years, with Britain almost losing on a couple of occasions
* Ward laid bare several problems with an outdated British army
* To put it bluntly, after the war, the British were convinced of their need for friends and wanted to join an alliance

Boers

* First European colonial overlords of South Africa
* But the British had moved in and taken the area for themselves after the Napoleonic Wars
* Lived in relative peace since that point, until the British outlawed slavery in 1833
* Boers supported slavery and left South Africa in the Great Trek and founded their own Boer states to the North
* British were fine with that, until it was discovered that they had landed on top of the largest gold and diamond deposits in the world

Concentration Camps

* Containment of large numbers of people, especially political prisoners or members of persecuted minorities, are deliberately imprisoned in a relatively small area with inadequate facilities
* Often made to provide forced labor or to await mass execution

Mahan/The Influence of Seapower upon History\*

* William II found his tool to take over Britain as a world power in this book
* Mahan, in this book, said Britain was as dominant as it was because it controlled the seas
* To matter - you needed a navy to control the areas in between countries
* There William II had his answer, to matter, he needed to build a big navy

Entente Cordiale

* Means friendly agreement
* Signed by Britain in 1904 with France
* Solved all colonial disputes between the two nations so that Britain could bring its fleet home to face Germany

Morocco

* William II threatens war with France over Morocco
* Wanted France to back down meekly over the threat so that Britain could see who the strong ally really was
* But Britain chose to stick by the French

Algiceras Conference\*

* 1906 - designed to stop Europe from going to war over Morocco
* William expected his ex-friends Russia and Britain to come to their senses at this conference and back him
* But they did not, and only Austria did
* The actions of William II had driven all of his allies, except Austria, away and into the arms of France
* The world was now ready for war, all it need was the spark

Francis Ferdinand

* Archduke of Bosnia, the heir to the Austrian throne
* Took a “goodwill” tour of Sarajevo in June 1914
* Was an affront to the Serbs, and Ferdinand was warned that there were assassins there who wanted to kill him
* He didn’t listen, and was shot and killed by a Serbian assassin, Prinzep, on June 28, 1914

Prinzep

* Serbian terrorist who assassinates Franz Ferdinand in a coffee shop after failed first attempt

Wartime socialism/DORA

* Planned economy - resources are diminishing, war-related goods are overproduced
* DORA by the British
* Tells everyone what to do and where to go (the draft)
* Men are drafted into war
* Women are drafted into jobs and farms
* Britain regulates virtually everything

Women and WWI\*

* Lives of women were changed forever, exiting the home and entering the workplace
* What it meant to be a woman, from employment to fashion to legal standing, changed across the world
* Perhaps best represented by women receiving the vote in most western nations right after WWI

Great Migration/African Americans and World War I\*

* Much of what the military taught to stood to make African Americans less likely to put up with Jim Crow
* African Americans did serve, and were able to see that Jim Crow was not the only way to do things
* In Europe, they were called heroes and Americans -- important new words
* But when they returned home, little had changed, and black soldiers were instructed NOT to wear their uniforms in the South
* The result was the Great Migration, with African Americans leaving the South in record numbers
* Genesis of the modern Civil Rights Movement

Lawrence of Arabia

* Famously raised an Arab revolt against their Turkish overlords
* Promised Arabs free rule over their lands

Balfour Declaration

* Britain signs this, supporting the international Zionist movement of Jews returning to their Holy Land to set up a new state

Sykes-Picot Agreement

* Behind it all, was the agreement in which Britain and France secretly plotted to divide up the Middle East among themselves
* Arabs were promised rulership, so were Zionists, but the truth was Britain and France designed to take it all

Rupert Brooke

* War poet who dropped out of Oxford University to volunteer for this popular war
* Wrote the poems “The Soldier” and “Peace”

“The Soldier”

* Brooke ponders about the possibility of his own death

“Peace”

* Brooke thanks God for being called to war

Wilfred Owen

* Another war poet who dropped out of college to serve
* Lived through Britain’s toughest battles and saw death at its worst

“Dulce Et Decorum Est”

* Wilfred Owen’s most famous poem
* Means that it is sweet and honorable to die for your country
* About a gas attack - phosgene gas which slowly rotted out the lungs of people who breathed it
* There was no cure and the death was horrific
* Writes of seeing things in a green light, British gas mask of the time had green glass in the eye holes

Machine Gun

* Could fire 600 rounds a minute
* A few working in tandem could throw a storm of steel at the enemy - at a level of lethality the world had never seen before
* Could mow down armies stranded in the open, but were not portable so they were best used in fixed defensive positions

Artillery (defense vs offense in WWI)\*

* Could throw a shell the size of size of a Volkswagen up to 23 miles
* Impacting shell would leave a crater the size of a lecture hall
* Massed in their thousands, these guns were lethal to an army in the open
* But, firing at a distance of many miles, they were often wildly inaccurate, missing their targets sometimes by miles
* Today, we could fix that with instant communication (i.e. radio), but WWI lacked this
* So we were fighting a 20th century war, with 19th century communication (deadly combination)

Industrial output and war

* Production lines made it possible to raise and keep huge armies in the field for years
* Made it possible for these armies to be supplied with more munitions and weapons that the world had ever seen before, deadly numbers
* Sent MILLIONS of men to war, 1.2 billion artillery shells were fired, 7 billion bullets, more than a million miles of barbed wire on the Western Front in France alone

Falkenhayn

* German commander, decided to strike the French at Verdun
* To combat the French, his plan was to throw so much German steel (artillery shells especially) at the French defenders, that so many Frenchmen would die that their nation would crumble
* Deadly equation - hoped that the French would die more quickly than his Germans and would eventually surrender
* Lasted 10 months, during that time, the Germans inched forward for 5 months, only to be pushed back to their starting point by the end of the battle

Battle of Verdun

* Begins in January 1916 and lasts until November
* Lasted 10 months, during that time, the Germans inched forward for 5 months, only to be pushed back to their starting point by the end of the battle
* 1 million die on each side, battle of attrition

Pal’s Battalions

* Men from a town or factory or university could join and serve together, choosing their own officers
* Street performers called “buskers” even made their own - the London Artists Rifles

Haig

* British commander at the Battle of the Somme
* Plan was to amass the greatest number of artillery pieces ever seen and essentially fire so many shells at the Germans that their lines were obliterated
* Firing was greatly impressive, but wildly inaccurate
* Germans were very much alive when the British army and its Pals Battalions attacked

Battle of the Somme\*

* Germans poured machine gun and artillery fire into the packed British ranks -- and within two hours, 57,000 British soldiers were killed or wounded
* Only in a few areas did the British even reach the German front line trenches

Tsar Nicholas

* Knew that his country was on the brink of collapse -- there was famine and call for revolution everywhere
* But, his big gamble was that he decided to stay in the war, even with all of the risks

U Boat

* Boat-like submarine
* Operated through stealth and couldn’t capture enemy merchant ships, only sink them
* Germans had famously used these ships a few times earlier in the war, notably sinking the Lusitania, a passenger liner full of Americans
* Had caused a great crisis between the two countries

Lenin (German gambles of 1917)\*

* Germany also thought that it had a potential war-winning weapon to use against Russia
* Greatest internal threat to the Russians was their Communist party - led by its Bolshevik faction
* The tsar had long exiled most Bolshevik leaders, including Vladimir Lenin
* Germany’s plan was to take Lenin from exile in Switzerland and secretly return him to Russia so that he could lead a revolution there
* Plan worked greatly - Lenin and his Bolshevik faction led a revolution in Russia, overthrowing the Tsar and creating the Soviet Union
* Part of the revolution was that Lenin signed a peace treaty ending the war with Germany
* Germany could finally take all of its troops from Russia and throw them into the west to face Britain and France, who were themselves exhausted by war

Hindenburg and Ludendorff

* German commanders who were to lead their push to victory
* Plan was to use their advantage in numbers and break through the Allied lines to seize Paris
* Reliance on new technological advances that had served to tip the balance of the war backed to the attackers
* Tanks, aircraft, hand grenades, portable machine guns, mortars
* Technology had worked overtime since the futility of 1916 and now there was hope of victory

Treaty of Versailles

* France and Britain largely wanted revenge in the treaty, while the U.S. favored welcoming Germany back into the family of nations
* Instead, Versailles was a balancing act, with elements of vengeance and leniency
* With this treaty, Germany lost 1/4th of its land area, was forced to pay for the entire war which caused their economy to implode, but they still remained a massive force in Europe
* Establishes the League of Nations

Clemenceau

* President of France
* Wanted revenge on Germany, plan is to divide up Germany into the states that they were before they allied

Wilson

* U.S. president at the time
* Wanted a very lenient peace treaty

Lloyd George

* British prime minister
* Tends to lean toward France, but is stuck between

League of Nations

* Idea that all of the good guys become allies and if Germany tries to strike back, they will take it down (collective security)
* England, France, Belgium, and Italy
* U.S. doesn’t join, Senate votes against joining even though Wilson came up with it

Proportional Democracy

* The result of the Treaty of Versailles
* Leaves Germany unstable and allows small, fringe parties to rise in importance

Adolf Hitler/the Nazis

* Hitler was the seventh member of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party - or the Nazis
* Fringe party - but it was saying some things that were very attractive to German voters

Stab in the back myth\*

* Nazi’s chief playing card
* Idea was that Germany had actually won WWI, but had victory snatched away by traitors, termed by Hitler the “November Criminals”
* These traitors had stabbed Germany in the back

Mein Kampf

* Means “my struggle”
* Book Hitler wrote in prison after being arrested for conspiring revolution
* However, people didn’t take him seriously

Currency Crisis of 1923

* In 1923, the German government, in an attempt to pay its crushing WWI debt from Versailles, devalued the German currency
* German mark went from trading at 4 per U.S. dollar to trading at 4.4 trillion per U.S. dollar
* Money you had saved as a regular German was now worthless, middle class was bankrupted

Great Depression

* Started in 1929 when unemployment met an all-time high, ends in 1932
* Wiped out much of the German middle class
* Hitler’s popularity surged after the 1923 devaluation of the mark