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Luddite Movement (or riots)
Worker’s movement to destroy machines and burn down factories to get back how things used to be (better working/living conditions)
Trade Union
Formed in the 1830s (many of the first were mining unions)
Functioned under the idea of collective bargaining
Masses of workers demand better pay and hours together
Trade Union Congress
Formed in 1868, all trade unions working together
Strike
The worker’s weapon, refusal to work
General Strike
An even bigger weapon
Everyone goes on strike, economic activity ceases
Conservatives
Had been in control since the fall of Rome
Didn’t like the Industrial Revolution or the urban working class
Upper class, want no change, stuck in the past
Liberals
Middle class (Bourgeoise) leaders of the Industrial Revolution
Thinkers include Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, etc.
Had no answers for the urban working class, were their enemy
David Ricardo/Iron Law of Wages
States shouldn’t pay the workers more than required to survive, if you do they have power to start revolution and multiply
John Stuart Mill
Author of “On Liberty”
Often seen as the champion of the working man because he supported regulations on the worst industrial abuse
Supported giving workers just enough to not revolt but not enough to change anything, cutting hours, and making factories nicer places with higher wages (secret enemy)
Charles Dickens/A Christmas Carol
Book about factory owning liberals, scrooge embodies Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo
Socialism*
Governmental ownership of the means of production
Believed the relationship between owner and worker was flawed, and that owners would never give the workers a fair share
So, they sought to upend that system through DEMOCRACY
The government, then, would more equitably share the wealth produced by industry
Utopian Socialism
First group of socialists
Believed in building new towns and cities with ideal working and living conditions, including New Lanark
But, these factories/towns failed
Robert Owen
Leader of the utopian socialist movement
Vision didn’t work, loses a lot of his money
Evolutionary Socialism
Believed that through education and elections, Socialism would slowly simply come to power
Largely was a success
Were fighting for police, education, public services/roads, military, and a more efficient route and oversight of Capitalism
Marxism (Communism)*
Founded by Karl Marx in his Communist Manifesto
Believes that the clash between the haves and have nots will perhaps be the main driver of history
Haves will never give the have nots an even break, so the have nots will have to seize power -- Marxism was a revolutionary ideology
Believes an educated proletariat will rise and overthrow the owning class, then the people themselves would own the means of production
The state, perhaps after a period of dictatorship, would fall away and governments, police, and armies would not be needed
Karl Marx/Communist Manifesto
Father of Communism who wrote a book on his communist form of government
Anarchism
Belief that government itself is wrong
We should all have nothing but individual liberty
Weak because if you band with another anarchist, you are no longer an anarchist
Evangelicalism*
Decided if the workers couldn’t/wouldn’t go to church, the church should come to them
Preached all over from street corners, to factories, to bars -- the original Revivals
Quickly spread to the Us and remains a dominant force, especially in the South
Stopped revolutions from happening in Britain and the US
John Wesley/Methodists
Represented the evangelicalism movement
Gave hopeless people hope and helped halt revolutions
Charles Darwin/On The Origin of Species*
Studied animals in the Galapagos Islands, specifically finches, and how they differed from one island to another
He wrote his book on these studies
Developed the Theory of Evolution through the engine of natural selection
This was the idea that humankind had developed from lower life forms
Stands in opposition to a religious understanding of creation
Social Darwinism
Derived from the idea of Darwinism, idea of de-evolution
Very dangerous idea, belief that history is driven by a struggle for survival and dominance between the races
Best personified by Adolf Hitler
Libertadore
The leaders of revolt in Spanish colonies
Most influential of these were Simon Bolivar and Jose De San Martin
Simon Bolivar*
Educated in Europe, but back in native Venezuela in time for its declaration of independence in 1810
In the threat of invasion, he became one of the leaders of the patriot army
Had huge ups and downs in his career
Turned in one of his best friends as a defeatist
At first, defeated the Spanish, but overplayed his hand and was exiled to Haiti
Raised a new army and returned to Venezuela and launched the Admirable Campaign
Gran Columbia
Created in 1819 because Bolivar wants something that resembles the United States in Latin America
Names himself dictator with the ability to choose his own successor
Collapses in 1831, shattering into the Latin American countries we know today
These smaller nations were vulnerable, leading to the rise of caudillismo -- the tradition of charismatic landowning, and military leaders rising to power and becoming dictators
Jose De San Martin
Argentine who fought in Spain against Napoleon
Once Argentina proclaimed its independence, he returned home to offer her services to patriot army
Commanded and created the Army of the Andes
Old Sarum/Manchester
An issue with apportionment of representation in the counties
The vote had not been reapportioned for over a century, and during that time, the population had shot up and moved to cities, so roughly 3% of the population is adequately represented
Best illustrated by Old Sarum, which had virtually no population, but still sent 2 members to Parliament
While industrial and urban cities, like Manchester and Birmingham, sent no one
Lord Grey
The prime minister in Europe during this time
Instead of fighting to keep rich landowners in power, he passes the Great Reform Act of 1832
Great Reform Act of 1832*
Reapportioning of the vote
Stops forthcoming revolution
Created a more democratic and representative system of government in England
Gladstone/Education Act
Passed in 1870
Created nationally funded schools and mandatory attendance in those schools
Allowed poor people to vote and be educated
Charles Parnell
British are moving into Northern Ireland, transitioning it to industrial and Protestant, but Southern Ireland is agricultural and Catholic
Under British rule, the Irish have to be members of the Church of England (which is Protestant) and tithe
So they begin to advocate for home rule
Parnell tried to use political power to achieve this, but it failed until after WWI, remains a huge issue into the 1990s and even recently
Home Rule
Political campaign for self-government by the Irish
Led in part by Charles Parnell
Largely a failure
French Revolution of 1848
Starts under King Louis Philippe of France, absolute monarchy
Middle class/liberals and urban, industrial poor had no say
Class of workers want a say in the political system and want to be able to vote, but the king says no
Paris Mob is formed and Louis Philippe flees to England
June Days
Happens after the Liberals gut Socialist Louis Blanc’s government work program
Worker’s mob pours out into the streets of Paris
Middle Class sends in the army to break up the workers
4,000 were killed and 4,000 more deported
Workers will have to wait for their chance again, pressure continues to build
Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon)
Steps into the presidential election in the 2nd Republic
Napoleon’s nephew who long thought that it was his destiny to replace his famous uncle
Elected in a landslide, spends his two-year presidency gathering more power for himself
Two years are up, calls on the army to keep him in power and arrests thousands of his political opponents
Even has an election to name himself emperor - wins 97% of the vote
France has slipped back into an absolute monarchy under a new Napoleon
Prussia/Hohenzollerns
Prussia was ruled by the Hohenzollern family
Lacks natural resources and people, has a strong army
If you live in Prussia, you are in the military, protestant
Austria/Hapsburgs
Austria was ruled by the Hapsburgs
Old, established, catholic, “classic Germany”
Frederick William IV
King of Prussia during the Revolution of 1848
Disliked by wealthy liberals and workers
Autocratic - absolute power
Surprised by the Berlin Mob and flees to the countryside
Prussia is taken over by the lower class
Frankfurt Assembly*
Attempt to unify Germany under a Liberal leadership
Even makes a national army and develops a constitution
Ultimately fails because it took over a year and kings had returned to their states and seized control of their militaries
Made a military state, not a liberal one
One of the greatest missed chances of history
William I
New king of Prussia after Frederick William IV turns down Frankfurt Assembly
Hires Otto von Bismarck because he is stupid and needs someone to lead the country for him
Otto von Bismarck*
Chief advisor to King William I, hates liberalism, pro divine right of kings
Believer in Realpolitik - the end justifies the means
Also a believer in the use of war as a diplomatic tool (blood and iron)
Realpolitik/Blood and Iron
Favors realism and politics, will do anything it takes to reach his goal, no morals or rules, Machiavelli politics
Belief that if the two German states are united, others will try to interfere because of Germany’s potential power, buys off other countries so they don’t get in his way
Danish War
Denmark had a new king, Christian, that the overwhelming German citizens didn’t like
Schleswig/Holstein wanted out, but Denmark wouldn’t allow it
Sensing a big chance, Bismarck enlists Austrian aid and attacks and quickly defeats Denmark
Works with his enemy Austria
Schleswig/Holstein
Long owned by Denmark, but an overwhelming amount of Germans who lived there wanted to be part of Germany
By 1864, they made up the vast majority of the population
So Bismarck enlisted Austrian aid with the intention of taking over the two states
7 Weeks War (Austro-Prussian War)
Bismarck accuses Austria of misrule in Holstein
Austria declares war in June 1866
Prussia invades Austria and wins the critical battle of Koniggratz
Austria is crushed
Leopold von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringien
Offered the Spanish throne by Bismarck
Napoleon freaks out and threatens war, but Leopold backs out
Ems Dispatch
Napoleon sends an ambassador to meet with William I at EMS
William sends EMS Dispatch to Bismarck
Bismarck makes the dispatch look like a confrontation and publishes it in the Parisian press, France demands war
Franco-Prussian War
Begins in July 1870
Due to superior staff work and professionalism, Prussians win the Battle of Sedan under the command of Moltke
A crushing victory, but the war lingers
Gives the illusion that future wars (such as WWI) will be quick and easy
Battle of Sedan
Only battle of the Franco-PrussianWar
Napoleon leads troops into war and is captured
France is defeated, immediately following their is another French Revolution
Prussians wait for revolution to resolve itself so they can sign a peace treaty
Treaty of Frankfurt*
Marks the end of the war
Bismarck’s big mistake
France is blamed for the war, made to pay for it, and occupied until they do
Most importantly, France loses the states of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany
Alsace-Lorraine
Otto von Bismarck takes these French provinces and gives them to the new state of Germany
New generation of French people are taught that Germany is the enemy, ready for war
Reconstruction
This period could have been truly revolutionary, but a lack of willpower on the part of the North, and a strong campaign of violence by southern whites (best represented by the KKK) meant that Reconstruction was largely a failure
African Americans were free, but most remained agricultural laborers in the South, working in the same plantations
Opportunities (political, economic, and educational) were very few, leaving the African American population to languish
Jim Crow*
Result of failed Reconstruction
Laws separated the races -- African Americans were not allowed to vote, could not attend white schools, and could not serve on juries
Lynching was legal
In many ways, equal to slavery, if not worse
With the failure of Reconstruction, America put off dealing with its race problems -- something it would have to face in the future
Abolition
U.S. had long wrestled with the problem of slavery
The South supported slavery, while the North did not
The two sides struck many compromises to walk the tightrope between their beliefs
But others outside the political arena pushed more strongly for abolition, or the end of slavery
Abraham Lincoln
Elected president in 1860, his party (Republicans) ran against slavery
Basic idea was not to end slavery immediately, but to not allow it to spread to the western territories
Southern states realized that as the territories become states, this would upset the balance in the Senate between slave and free states, which could lead to legislation against slavery in the future
Not wanting this, the southern states began to secede from the Union
Reinsurance Treaty
Secret treaty Bismarck signed with Russia to keep them on his side
This stops the progression to WWI
William II
Grandson of William I, took over after he did
Vain and arrogant, jealous of Bismarck
Wanted more for Germany, wanted the country to supplant Britain as the main power in the world
Bismarck was largely happy with where Germany was - William II wanted to press for world domination
Dual Alliance
There were now two competing alliance systems in Europe
Russia and France vs Germany and Austria
Both were rather equal in size, and whichever of them could lure Britain to their side would be dominant
Boer War*
War between the British and the Boers
Lasted from 1899-1902, classic mismatch; world’s most powerful empire against a few hundred thousand Dutch farmers
War drug on for three years, with Britain almost losing on a couple of occasions
Ward laid bare several problems with an outdated British army
To put it bluntly, after the war, the British were convinced of their need for friends and wanted to join an alliance
Boers
First European colonial overlords of South Africa
But the British had moved in and taken the area for themselves after the Napoleonic Wars
Lived in relative peace since that point, until the British outlawed slavery in 1833
Boers supported slavery and left South Africa in the Great Trek and founded their own Boer states to the North
British were fine with that, until it was discovered that they had landed on top of the largest gold and diamond deposits in the world
Concentration Camps
Containment of large numbers of people, especially political prisoners or members of persecuted minorities, are deliberately imprisoned in a relatively small area with inadequate facilities
Often made to provide forced labor or to await mass execution
Mahan/The Influence of Seapower upon History*
William II found his tool to take over Britain as a world power in this book
Mahan, in this book, said Britain was as dominant as it was because it controlled the seas
To matter - you needed a navy to control the areas in between countries
There William II had his answer, to matter, he needed to build a big navy
Entente Cordiale
Means friendly agreement
Signed by Britain in 1904 with France
Solved all colonial disputes between the two nations so that Britain could bring its fleet home to face Germany
Morocco
William II threatens war with France over Morocco
Wanted France to back down meekly over the threat so that Britain could see who the strong ally really was
But Britain chose to stick by the French
Algiceras Conference*
1906 - designed to stop Europe from going to war over Morocco
William expected his ex-friends Russia and Britain to come to their senses at this conference and back him
But they did not, and only Austria did
The actions of William II had driven all of his allies, except Austria, away and into the arms of France
The world was now ready for war, all it need was the spark
Francis Ferdinand
Archduke of Bosnia, the heir to the Austrian throne
Took a “goodwill” tour of Sarajevo in June 1914
Was an affront to the Serbs, and Ferdinand was warned that there were assassins there who wanted to kill him
He didn’t listen, and was shot and killed by a Serbian assassin, Prinzep, on June 28, 1914
Prinzep
Serbian terrorist who assassinates Franz Ferdinand in a coffee shop after failed first attempt
Wartime socialism/DORA
Planned economy - resources are diminishing, war-related goods are overproduced
DORA by the British
Tells everyone what to do and where to go (the draft)
Men are drafted into war
Women are drafted into jobs and farms
Britain regulates virtually everything
Women and WWI*
Lives of women were changed forever, exiting the home and entering the workplace
What it meant to be a woman, from employment to fashion to legal standing, changed across the world
Perhaps best represented by women receiving the vote in most western nations right after WWI
Great Migration/African Americans and World War I*
Much of what the military taught to stood to make African Americans less likely to put up with Jim Crow
African Americans did serve, and were able to see that Jim Crow was not the only way to do things
In Europe, they were called heroes and Americans -- important new words
But when they returned home, little had changed, and black soldiers were instructed NOT to wear their uniforms in the South
The result was the Great Migration, with African Americans leaving the South in record numbers
Genesis of the modern Civil Rights Movement
Lawrence of Arabia
Famously raised an Arab revolt against their Turkish overlords
Promised Arabs free rule over their lands
Balfour Declaration
Britain signs this, supporting the international Zionist movement of Jews returning to their Holy Land to set up a new state
Sykes-Picot Agreement
Behind it all, was the agreement in which Britain and France secretly plotted to divide up the Middle East among themselves
Arabs were promised rulership, so were Zionists, but the truth was Britain and France designed to take it all
Rupert Brooke
War poet who dropped out of Oxford University to volunteer for this popular war
Wrote the poems “The Soldier” and “Peace”
“The Soldier”
Brooke ponders about the possibility of his own death
“Peace”
Brooke thanks God for being called to war
Wilfred Owen
Another war poet who dropped out of college to serve
Lived through Britain’s toughest battles and saw death at its worst
“Dulce Et Decorum Est”
Wilfred Owen’s most famous poem
Means that it is sweet and honorable to die for your country
About a gas attack - phosgene gas which slowly rotted out the lungs of people who breathed it
There was no cure and the death was horrific
Writes of seeing things in a green light, British gas mask of the time had green glass in the eye holes
Machine Gun
Could fire 600 rounds a minute
A few working in tandem could throw a storm of steel at the enemy - at a level of lethality the world had never seen before
Could mow down armies stranded in the open, but were not portable so they were best used in fixed defensive positions
Artillery (defense vs offense in WWI)*
Could throw a shell the size of size of a Volkswagen up to 23 miles
Impacting shell would leave a crater the size of a lecture hall
Massed in their thousands, these guns were lethal to an army in the open
But, firing at a distance of many miles, they were often wildly inaccurate, missing their targets sometimes by miles
Today, we could fix that with instant communication (i.e. radio), but WWI lacked this
So we were fighting a 20th century war, with 19th century communication (deadly combination)
Industrial output and war
Production lines made it possible to raise and keep huge armies in the field for years
Made it possible for these armies to be supplied with more munitions and weapons that the world had ever seen before, deadly numbers
Sent MILLIONS of men to war, 1.2 billion artillery shells were fired, 7 billion bullets, more than a million miles of barbed wire on the Western Front in France alone
Falkenhayn
German commander, decided to strike the French at Verdun
To combat the French, his plan was to throw so much German steel (artillery shells especially) at the French defenders, that so many Frenchmen would die that their nation would crumble
Deadly equation - hoped that the French would die more quickly than his Germans and would eventually surrender
Lasted 10 months, during that time, the Germans inched forward for 5 months, only to be pushed back to their starting point by the end of the battle
Battle of Verdun
Begins in January 1916 and lasts until November
Lasted 10 months, during that time, the Germans inched forward for 5 months, only to be pushed back to their starting point by the end of the battle
1 million die on each side, battle of attrition
Pal’s Battalions
Men from a town or factory or university could join and serve together, choosing their own officers
Street performers called “buskers” even made their own - the London Artists Rifles
Haig
British commander at the Battle of the Somme
Plan was to amass the greatest number of artillery pieces ever seen and essentially fire so many shells at the Germans that their lines were obliterated
Firing was greatly impressive, but wildly inaccurate
Germans were very much alive when the British army and its Pals Battalions attacked
Battle of the Somme*
Germans poured machine gun and artillery fire into the packed British ranks -- and within two hours, 57,000 British soldiers were killed or wounded
Only in a few areas did the British even reach the German front line trenches
Tsar Nicholas
Knew that his country was on the brink of collapse -- there was famine and call for revolution everywhere
But, his big gamble was that he decided to stay in the war, even with all of the risks
U Boat
Boat-like submarine
Operated through stealth and couldn’t capture enemy merchant ships, only sink them
Germans had famously used these ships a few times earlier in the war, notably sinking the Lusitania, a passenger liner full of Americans
Had caused a great crisis between the two countries
Lenin (German gambles of 1917)*
Germany also thought that it had a potential war-winning weapon to use against Russia
Greatest internal threat to the Russians was their Communist party - led by its Bolshevik faction
The tsar had long exiled most Bolshevik leaders, including Vladimir Lenin
Germany’s plan was to take Lenin from exile in Switzerland and secretly return him to Russia so that he could lead a revolution there
Plan worked greatly - Lenin and his Bolshevik faction led a revolution in Russia, overthrowing the Tsar and creating the Soviet Union
Part of the revolution was that Lenin signed a peace treaty ending the war with Germany
Germany could finally take all of its troops from Russia and throw them into the west to face Britain and France, who were themselves exhausted by war
Hindenburg and Ludendorff
German commanders who were to lead their push to victory
Plan was to use their advantage in numbers and break through the Allied lines to seize Paris
Reliance on new technological advances that had served to tip the balance of the war backed to the attackers
Tanks, aircraft, hand grenades, portable machine guns, mortars
Technology had worked overtime since the futility of 1916 and now there was hope of victory
Treaty of Versailles
France and Britain largely wanted revenge in the treaty, while the U.S. favored welcoming Germany back into the family of nations
Instead, Versailles was a balancing act, with elements of vengeance and leniency
With this treaty, Germany lost 1/4th of its land area, was forced to pay for the entire war which caused their economy to implode, but they still remained a massive force in Europe
Establishes the League of Nations
Clemenceau
President of France
Wanted revenge on Germany, plan is to divide up Germany into the states that they were before they allied
Wilson
U.S. president at the time
Wanted a very lenient peace treaty
Lloyd George
British prime minister
Tends to lean toward France, but is stuck between
League of Nations
Idea that all of the good guys become allies and if Germany tries to strike back, they will take it down (collective security)
England, France, Belgium, and Italy
U.S. doesn’t join, Senate votes against joining even though Wilson came up with it
Proportional Democracy
The result of the Treaty of Versailles
Leaves Germany unstable and allows small, fringe parties to rise in importance
Adolf Hitler/the Nazis
Hitler was the seventh member of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party - or the Nazis
Fringe party - but it was saying some things that were very attractive to German voters
Stab in the back myth*
Nazi’s chief playing card
Idea was that Germany had actually won WWI, but had victory snatched away by traitors, termed by Hitler the “November Criminals”
These traitors had stabbed Germany in the back
Mein Kampf
Means “my struggle”
Book Hitler wrote in prison after being arrested for conspiring revolution
However, people didn’t take him seriously
Currency Crisis of 1923
In 1923, the German government, in an attempt to pay its crushing WWI debt from Versailles, devalued the German currency
German mark went from trading at 4 per U.S. dollar to trading at 4.4 trillion per U.S. dollar
Money you had saved as a regular German was now worthless, middle class was bankrupted
Great Depression
Started in 1929 when unemployment met an all-time high, ends in 1932
Wiped out much of the German middle class
Hitler’s popularity surged after the 1923 devaluation of the mark