AP Psychology: Unit 1 Vocab

Includes: Interaction of Heredity and Environment, Sleep, Overview of the Nervous System, The Neuron and Neural Firing, The Brain, & Sensation

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetic vs. environment on various traits and behaviors.

“Nurture” Environment

The environmental influences and experiences that shape an individuals psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes.

Eugenics

The belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones.

Evolutionary Perspective

The Study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success.

Family Studies

Analyzes similarities and differences among family members including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit.

Genetic Predisposition

The inherited liklihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents.

Heredity

The transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring.

Nature “Genes”

The inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individuals psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Natural Selection

The process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations.

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors.

Activation-Synthesis

A theory proposing that dreams are the result of random neural activity in the brainstem during REM sleep, which is then interpreted and synthesized by the cerebral cortex into a narrative or story.

Circadian Rhythm

The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. Influences patterns of alertness, hormone release, body temperature, and other physiological processes

Consciousness

The state of being aware and able to perceive one’s thoughts, feelings, sensations, and surroundings. It involved various levels, from alert wakefulness to altered states such as sleep or meditation.

Consolidation Theory 

A theory suggesting that dreams play a role in the memory consolidation and processing of memories. During sleep, the brain organizes info acquired throughout the day, contributing to memory storage and learning.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Vivid sensory experiences that occur as you transition from wakefulness to sleep. These can be visual, auditory, or tactile, and include things like seeing patterns or faces, hearing voices, or feeling like you are falling or weightless.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing restorative sleep, leading to daytime impairment such as fatigue, mood disturbances, and decreased cognitive function.

Jet Lag

A temporary disruption of the body’s circadian rhythm due to rapid travel across multiple time zones; results in fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden episodes of muscle weakness (cataplexy), sleep paralysis, and hallucinations during sleep onset or awakening.

NREM

The quiet, restful phase of sleep that consists of three stages.

NREM - Stage 1

The first stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by drifting in and out of sleep, lasting only a few minutes.

NREM - Stage 2

The second stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by light sleep, lasting about 20 minutes.

NREM - Stage 3

The deepest stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by the presence of predominantly delta waves.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder where individuals physically act out their dreams during REM sleep, potentially causing injury to themselves or others due to loss of muscle paralysis.

REM Rebound

The phenomenon where the body increases the time spent in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.

REM Sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movents, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep, leading to disrupted sleep patterns, daytime fatigue, and other health problems.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of rhythmic neural activity in the 12-16 Hz frequency range that occur during stage 2 non-REM sleep, appearing as a_______ shape on an electroencephalogram (EEG).

Somnambulism

A sleep disorder commonly known as sleepwalking, characterized by walking or performing other activities while still asleep. It  typically occurs during non-REM sleep stages and can result in injuries or accidents.

Central Nervous System

The_______consists of the brain and spinal cord. It serves as the command center of the body, responsible for processing information, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions.

Peripheral Nervous System

Consists of all nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions. It operates automatically without concious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for activating the body’s “Fight, Flight, or Freeze” response in times of stress or danger.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger; “Rest or Digest”.

Somatic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.

Nervous System

The body’s communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells.

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron.

All-or-None Principle

States that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength.

Axon

A long, slender projection that carries signals away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Dendrites

Short, branching extensions that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them toward the cell body.

Depolarization

Phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions, like sodium ions, through ion channels in the cell membrane.

Glial Cells

The “support” cells of the nervous system, provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons.

Interneurons

Nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurson and motor neurons.

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and organs, initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary movements.

Multiple Sclerosis

Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system. It also attacks the myelin sheath, slowing down signals between neurons.

Myashthenia Gravis

Chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles. It attacks a specific neurotransmitter called acetylcholine.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty, insulating layer that surrounds some axons and helps to speed up the transmission of electrical signals.

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals.

Neurons

Specialized cells that serve as building blocks of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflexes).

Refractory Period

Brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential.

Resting Potential

The stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals.

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released.

Sensory Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles, and organs to the central nervous system.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons, where communication occurs.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron. It’s the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays an important role in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system through muscle contraction, memory, and learning.

Epinephrine “Adrenaline”

Hormone produced in high stress or exciting situations, physical boost, and heightened awareness.

Dopamine

“Pleasure” chemical of the brain released into the pleasure centers of the brain, related to reward and motivation (learning).

Endorphins

Relieve pain and stress; brain’s “natural aspirin or tylenol”; feelings of pleasure/euphoria.

GABA

Inhibitory transmitter that slows things down, calming the central nervous system; “natural tranquilizer”; contributes to motor control and vision.

Ghrelin

Hormone produced primarily by the stomach and small intestine that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved with most normal operations of the brain including thinking, long-term memory, and learning.

Leptin

Hormone produced primarily by fact cells that regulate energy balance and appetite. It acts on the hypothalamus in the brain to suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure.

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms in the body.

Norepinephrine

Hormone associated with response to danger, attention & responding actions in the brain.

Oxytocin

Powerful hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain, regulating social interactions and sexual reproduciton.

Serotonin

Hormone that’s connected to feelings of well-being and happiness. It regulates the sleep cycle along with melatonin, and regulation of intestinal movements.

Substance p

A neurotransmitter invovled in transmitting pain signals in the nervous system.

Agonists

Substances that bind to neurotransmitter receptors and mimic their effects, enhancing neural activity.

Antagonists

Substances that bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them, blocking the effects of neurotransmitters.

Pyschoactive Drugs

Substances that alter brain function and consciousness by influencing how neurotransmitters operate in the CNS, leading to changes in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior.

Reuptake Inhibitors

Medications that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by sending neuron, thereby increasing the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft and enhancing neurotransmission.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and arousal, leading to heightened alertness, attention, and energy levels.

Caffeine

A natural stimulant found in coffee, tea, and some sodas; it acts on the CNS, increasing alertness and reducing fatigue by blocking the neurotransmitter adenosine.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant derived from the coca plant. It increases neural activity, leading to euphoria, increased energy, and alertness. It also blocks the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.

Depresssants

Drugs taht slow down neural activity and bodily functions.

Alcohol

A depressant drug that slows down neural activity in the CNS. It can impair judgment, coordination, and cognitive functions, leading to relaxation, euphoria, and in higher cases, intoxicaiton.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception mood, and cognitive processes, often causing hallucinations or profound changes in consciousness.

Marijuana

A psychoactive drug derived from the cannabis plant. It contains THC, which alters mood, perception, and cognition. Effects include relaxation, altered perception of time, and heightened sensory experiences.

Opioids

A psychoactive drug that acts on opioid receptors in the brain and body, producing pain relief, euphoria, and sedation.

Heroin

A highly addictive opiod drug derived from morphine. It produces intense euphoria, pain relief, and sedation by binding to opiod receptors in the brain.

Tolerance

A condition where increasing amounts of a psychoactive substance are needed to achieve the same effects. It occurs due to the brain’s adaption to the drug, leading to reduced sensitivity to its effects over time.

Withdrawal

The onset of symptoms when a person stops using a psychoactive substance after a prolonged use. Symptoms can include physical discomfort, psychological distress, and cravings for the drug.

Addiction

A chronic brain disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. It involves changes in the brain structure and function, leading to a loss of control over drug consumption.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, percieving, and decision-making.

Frontal Lobe

Executive control center that functions in controlling problem solving and rational thinking.

Parietal Lobe

Sensory processing hub that functions in processing sensory information like touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.

Occipital Lobe

Visual processing center that functions in processing visual information recieved from the eyes.

Temporal Lobe

Auditory center that functions in processing auditory information like language comprehension, and memory formation.

Association Areas

Parts of the brain that take information from all over the place; what we see, hear, smell, and touch and puts it together to help us better understand the world around us.

Prefrontal Cortex

A region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsiblefor higher-level cognitive functions and executive funcitoning.

Executive Functioning

A set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively.

Motor Cortex

A region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements of the body.

Somatosensory Cortex

A region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and information sharing between the two hemispheres.

Brain Stem

The oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for the basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles.

Medulla

A vital structure located at the base of the brainstem, regulating essential autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

Reticular Activating System

A network of neurons located in the brain stem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, an consciousness.

Cerebellum

Located at the back of the brain, below the cerebral hemispheres responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture.