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5 effects on the body due to sympathetic activation
increased heart rate
dilation of pupils
increased blood pressure
sweat production
decreased gastrointestinal movement
5 targets of the parasympathetic division
heart
digestive system
respiratory system
eyes
urinary system
synapse
a small gap at the end of a neuron that allows the signals to pass from one neuron to the next
autonomic ganglia
clusters of nerve cell bodies
postganglionic neuron
a nerve cell that carries signals away from an autonomic ganglion to an effector organ
craniosacral
referring to the two main divisions of the parasympathetic nervous system
thoracolumbar
referring to the two main divisions of the sympathetic nervous system
varicosities
swollen, bead-like structures along the length of certain autonomic nerve fibers
adrenal medulla
innermost part of the adrenal glands, which are small triangular-shaped glands located on top of each kidney
visceral motor neuron
use neurotransmitters to transmit signals
neuron that contributes to both the sympathetic and parasympathetic functions
neurotransmitter (+example)
a chemical messenger that transmits signals across synapses
example: acetylcholine
dual innervation by the autonomic nervous system (+example)
most visceral organs receive input from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
example: the heart is influenced by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
collateral ganglia (+example)
clusters of nerve cell bodies located at a distance from the spinal cord, they are involved in regulating functions of abdominal organs
example: celiac ganglia
sympathomimetic drug (+example)
a substance that mimic or enhances the effects of the sympathetic nervous system
example: epinephrine (adrenaline)
explain why epinephrine and norepinephrine can be considered both neurotransmitters and hormones
they help signals jump from one messenger to another at synapses but they also reach different parts of the body and prepare it for action
explain how the vagus nerve controls most of the output of the parasympathetic nervous system
it serves as the main conduit for parasympathetic signals that originate in the brain and influence various organs throughout the body
explain how fight or flight allows us to deal with a crisis
the fight or flight response is a set of physiological changes that prepares the body to cope with a crisis by optimizing physical and mental capabilities
somatic versus autonomic divisions of the nervous system
the somatic nervous system control voluntary movements and skeletal muscles
the autonomic system regulated involuntary functions of internal organs , maintaining the body’s internal environment
adrenergic versus cholinergic receptors
adrenergic receptors respond to norepinephrine and epinephrine, mediating sympathetic responses
cholinergic receptors respond to acetylcholine, mediating parasympathetic responses
length of preganglionic neuron of sympathetic versus parasympathetic division
preganglionic neurons are shorter in the sympathetic division and longer in the parasympathetic division
nicotinic versus muscarinic receptor
nicotinic receptors mediate rapid responses
muscarinic receptors meidate slower and more prolonged responses
alpha versus beta receptors
alpha receptors cause vasoconstriction
beta receptors have diverse effects on the heart, lungs, and other organs, contributing to the body’s response to stress and danger
2 hormones that regulate Ca2+ levels
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
calcitonin
2 effects of thyroid hormones on the body
metabolic rate regulation
energy homeostasis and nutrient utilization
2 hormones secreted from the pancreas
insulin
glucagon
4 hormones secreted from the adrenal gland
cortisol
aldosterone
epinephrine and norepinephrine
androgens
2 hormones that are regulated by CRH
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
2 targets of growth hormone (GH)
muscles and bones
immune system
second messenger
a substance whose release within a cell is promoted by a hormone and brings about a response to the cell
hypophyseal portal system
a specialized vascular arrangement that connects the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland
facilitates the communication of hormones
upregulation
the process by which a cell increases its response to a substance or signal from outside the cell to carry out a specific function
antidiuretic (ADH)
a chemical produced in the brain that causes the kidneys to release less water, decreasing the amount of urine produced
calorigenic effect
the measure of increased metabolic rate and increase in the consumption of oxygen
prolactin (PRL)
a hormone that’s responsible for lactation
oxytocin
a hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increases contraction of the uterus and stimulates the ejection of milk of the breasts
releasing hormone (+example)
a type of hormone that stimulates the release of another hormone
example: thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH)
inhibiting hormone (+example)
a type of hormone that suppresses or inhibits the release of another hormone from an endocrine gland
example: growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
steroid hormone (+example)
hormones derived from cholesterol and characterized by their lipid-soluble nature
example: cortisol
gonadotropins (+example)
a group of hormones that stimulate the gonads to produce sex hormones and gametes
example: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
synergistic effect (+example)
situation in which the combined action of two or more factors, results in an effect greater than the individual effects
Example: antibiotic and beta-inhibitors
explain how the kidneys are involved in the regulation of sodium and potassium levels in the blood
the kidneys manage the levels of sodium and potassium by filtering, reabsorbing, and then pushes the extra into the urine
explain how the pancreas regulates blood glucose levels
the pancreas produces insulin and glucagon which manage blood sugar levels and maintains balanced levels
explain how the hypothalamus controls the endocrine system
the hypothalamus makes sure everything in the body is doing their job, it send messages to other glands telling them what to do and how to adjust
hormonal versus humoral stimuli (+example)
hormonal: occurs with the release of hormones triggered by the presence of other hormones
example: T3 and T4 is stimulated by the release of TSH
humoral: change in extracellular fluid
example: insulin is stimulated by high blood glucose levels
endocrine versus neuronal stimuli (+example)
endocrine: involves the release of hormones in response to changes in the internal environment or signals from other hormones
example: thyroid hormone regulation
neuronal: involves the release of hormones in response to neural signals
example: fight or flight response
hormones that bind to surface cell receptors versus intracellular receptors
hormones that bind to surface: typically water-soluble and cannot pass through the cell membrane
example: peptide hormones (insulin, GH, and glucagon)
intracellular: typically lipid-soluble and can pass through the cell membrane
example: steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol)
peptide versus lipid derived hormone (+example)
peptide: made up of amino acids and form short chains of peptide, are water-soluble
example: insulin, GH, oxytocin
lipid-derived: derived from lipids and include steroids, lipid-soluble
example: testosterone, estrogen, cortisol
functions of the blood in the cardiovascular system
transports oxygen and nutrients
distribution of hormones
maintains body temperature
fluid balance
three phases of hemostasis
vasoconstriction
helps reduce blood flow to injured area
platelet plug
stop bleeding by forming a temporary plug
coagulation
sealing the injured area to prevent further bleeding
components of whole blood
plasma
liquid component
makes up about 55%
formed elements
RBCs, WBCs, platelets
buffy coat
WBCs and platelets
immune response and blood clotting
hematocrit
percentage of blood volume occupied by RBCs
hematocrit
ratio of the volume of RBCs to the total volume of blood
erythrocyte
a RBC that contains hemoglobin and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from tissues
hemostasis
the stopping of a flow of blood
thrombin
an enzyme in blood plasma which causes the clotting of blood by converting fibrinogen to fibrin
hematopoiesis
blood cell production
colony stimulating factor (CSF)
a substance secreted by bone marrow which promotes the growth of stem cells into colonies of specific blood cells
hemotopoietic stem cell
an immature cell that can develop into all types of blood cells, (RBCs, WBCs, and platelets)
thrombocytopenia
deficiency of platelets in blood, causing bleeding into the tissues (bruising)
leukopenia
a reduction in the number of white blood cells in the blood
leukemia
a disease in which the bone marrow and other blood-forming organs produce increased numbers of immature or abnormal leukocytes
major plasma proteins (+example)
proteins that are found in the liquid component of blood called plasma, they maintain osmotic pressure, transport substances, and contribute to the immune response
example: albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen
agglutinin (+example)
an antibody that causes clumping to agglutination of cells, immune system’s response to foreign substances
example: anti-A agglutinin, anti-B agglutinin
agglutinogen (+example)
an antigen that can induce the clumping or agglutination of cells, agglutinogens on the surface of red blood cells can determine an individuals blood type
example: A and B antigens
anticoagulant (+example)
a substance that prevents or inhibits blood clotting
example: heparin
granulocyte (+example)
a type of WBC characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm
example: neutrophils, basophils
explain how the structure of red blood cells provide for their function
the biconcave shape maximizes the surface area for flexibility
lack of nucleus provide more space for hemoglobin, maximizing the cell’s oxygen carrying capacity
explain how EPO regulated RBC production
EPO is produced and released by the kidneys, especially in response to low oxygen levels in the blood
EPO travels in the blood stream to the bone marrow, where RBCs are produced
explain how red blood cell components are degraded
the components of RBCs are broken down and recycled in a process known as RBC catabolism
explain how platelets aid in hemostasis
platelets form a temporary plug at the site of injury and they contribute to the formation of a stable blood clot
explain how white blood cells contribute to immunity
they play a central role in defending the body against infections, pathogens and foreign substances
deoxyhemoglobin versus oxyhemoglobin
what determines these states
deoxyhemoglobin: hemoglobin without oxygen, found in tissues where oxygen has been given to cells for their needs
oxyhemoglobin: hemoglobin with oxygen, predominant in the lungs where hemoglobin picks up oxygen
neutrophil versus basophil (+example)
neutrophils: most abundance type of WBC, often the first responders to infections
example: a cut becomes infected, neutrophils migrate to the site of infection
basophils: involved in the inflammatory and allergic responses, release histamine
example: in an allergic reaction, basophils release histamine
parietal pericardium
the outer layer of the pericardium which is a sac of fibrous tissue that surrounds the heart
pericarditis
inflammation of the pericardium
myocardial infarction
heart attack
decreased or complete cessation of blood flow to a portion of the myocardium
coronary ischemia
heart problems caused by narrowed heart (coronary) arteries that supply blood to the heart msucle
isovolumetric contraction
the phase of systole when both valves are closed
stroke volume
the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart during systolic cardiac contraction
end diastolic volume
the amount of blood that is in the ventricles before the heart contracts
tachycardia
an increased heart rate
AV valves (+example)
heart valves located between the atria and the ventricles of the heart
example: tricuspid valve, mitral valve
semilunar valves (+example)
heart valves located between the ventricles of the heart and the major arteries that carry blood away from the heart
example: aortic valve, pulmonary valve
explain how blood flows through the pulmonary circuit, indicating the major chambers, vessels, and valves involved
right atrium
tricuspid valve
right ventricle
pulmonary valve
pulmonary artery
lungs
pulmonary veins
left atrium
mitral valve
left ventricle
aortic valve
aorta
rest of the body
explain the functions of the four valves of the heart
tricuspid: prevents back flow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium during systole
mitral valve: prevents back flow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium
pulmonary valve: prevents back flow of blood from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle during diastole
aortic valve: prevents back flow from the aorta to the left ventricle during diastole
explain why the SA node is considered the natural pacemaker of the heart
because it posses intrinsic electrical properties that enable it to generate rhythmic and regular electrical impulses, initiating the heartbeat
the 3 layers of the heart wall
epicardium
myocardium
endocardium
the major vessels involved in the systemic circuit (connected directly to the heart)
aorta
systemic arteries
arterioles
capillaries
systemic veins
superior and inferior vena cava
components of the conducting system
sinoatrial node (SA node): natural pacemaker of the heart
atrioventricular node (AV node): receives electrical impulses from the SA node and serves as a delay mechanism allowing the atria to fully contract
atrioventricular bundle: rapidly conducts the impulses from the AV node to the ventricles
bundle of branches: divides into smaller branches that conduct the impulses to the purkinje fibers
purkinje fibers: conduct electrical impulses to the myocardial cells of the ventricles, leading to their contraction
right versus left ventricle
right: receives deoxygenated blood from right atrium and pumps it to the pulmonary artery, thinner wall, tricuspid valve
left: receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it into the aorta, thicker wall, mitral valve
systole versus diastole
systole: phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart chambers contract, pushing blood out of the chambers
diastole: phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart chambers relax and fill with blood
arteries versus veins
arteries: carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and to the tissues and organs throughout the body
veins: carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart
P wave
depolarization of the atria
QRS complex
depolarization of ventricles
ventricles begin contracting shortly after R wave
T wave
repolarization of ventricles
P-R interval
from start of atrial depolarization, to start of QRS complex
Q-T interval
time required for ventricles to undergo a single cycle of depolarization
pacemaker cells
cardiac muscle tissue contracts without neural or hormonal stimulation
conducting cells
initiate and distribute electrical impulses that stimulate contraction
ectopic pacemaker
abnormal cells generate high rate of action potentials
bypass conducting system
disrupts timing of ventricular contractions