Unit 3: Politics and Canadian Society

Why is societal context crucial in understanding politics and government?

It shapes the foundational issues, identities, and divisions that define a country's political life. Societal context influences how power is distributed, what public debates emerge, and how institutions evolve.

What societal issue is central to U.S. political history?

Race relations between white and Black Americans have been at the core of U.S. political history, shaping civil rights movements, law enforcement, voting access, and broader social policy.

How has Canadian demography changed in recent decades?

Increased immigration from outside Europe has diversified Canada's population, impacting political representation, cultural policy, and social integration strategies.

How does Canada's relationship with the U.S. impact its politics?

Canada's close economic, cultural, and geopolitical ties with the U.S. influence domestic policy, trade decisions, and cultural identity formation.

What role do state actors play in shaping politics?

State actors like politicians and bureaucrats shape political discourse and determine which societal interests are addressed, though they remain influenced by broader societal forces.

What factors provide context for political behavior and policy-making?

Key factors include political identities, economic systems, regional divisions, linguistic communities, and ideological fault lines within society.

What is political culture?

Political culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, and behaviors toward politics in a society, influencing participation, trust in government, and perceptions of political legitimacy.

How do Canadians perceive their national identity compared to Americans?

Canadians often see themselves as more community-oriented, tolerant, and supportive of collective welfare, especially in contrast to the individualistic ethos commonly associated with the U.S.

Why is national identity a recurring issue in Canada?

Canada’s bilingualism, multiculturalism, and proximity to the U.S. generate ongoing debate about what defines Canadian identity and values.

How is identity viewed differently in French-speaking Canada?

Quebec’s identity discourse is rooted in preserving French language and culture, focusing more on internal Canadian dynamics than on comparison with the U.S.

What is ideology in politics?

An ideology is a structured set of political beliefs that explain how society operates and how it should be organized, guiding political behavior and policy preferences.

How does ideology differ from political culture?

Ideology is more conscious and systematic, often adopted by activists, whereas political culture reflects the general population's ingrained habits, beliefs, and political norms.

What are key elements of Canadian political culture research?

Studies focus on differences between linguistic groups, regional identities, generational value shifts, and metrics like political participation, efficacy, and alienation.

How does personality influence political ideas?

Traits such as deference to authority or openness to change influence attitudes toward civil rights, authority, and political engagement, often linked to cultural norms.

What defines left-wing ideology in Western societies?

Left-wing ideologies prioritize social equality, government intervention in the economy, and the protection of marginalized communities, emphasizing collective responsibility.

What defines right-wing ideology in Western societies?

Right-wing ideologies emphasize individual freedom, market efficiency, personal responsibility, and skepticism toward large-scale government intervention.

How do libertarians differ from social conservatives?

Libertarians value maximum individual freedom, including in moral issues, while social conservatives focus on preserving traditional moral values and social norms.

What complicates the left–right political spectrum?

Political beliefs often overlap, and pragmatic governance frequently pushes parties toward the center, blurring the lines between ideological categories.

What role does Canada's health-care system play in national identity?

It is seen as a symbol of Canada’s collectivist values, promoting equity and community welfare, and is contrasted with the U.S.’s privatized system.

What are the three classical Western political ideologies?

Liberalism (individual liberty), conservatism (tradition and hierarchy), and socialism (economic and social equality) have historically shaped Western political systems.

What is classical liberalism?

Classical liberalism promotes individual rights, economic freedom, and limited government, rooted in Enlightenment values of autonomy and rational governance.

What is classical conservatism?

Classical conservatism values tradition, social hierarchy, and stability, viewing political authority as derived from God and historical institutions, not just the people.

What is socialism?

Socialism advocates for equality of condition, collective ownership or regulation of resources, and strong protections for workers and social welfare programs.

Why are traditional ideologies less useful today?

Their meanings have evolved over time, and many citizens now adopt hybrid beliefs that don't fit neatly into classic ideological categories.

How has modern liberalism changed from classical liberalism?

Modern liberalism emphasizes social justice, minority rights, and state responsibility to promote equity, diverging from classical liberalism’s focus on negative freedom.

How has modern conservatism evolved?

It now promotes free-market principles and equality of opportunity, while maintaining support for law, order, and limited government.

How has socialism changed in modern times?

Modern socialism, or social democracy, accepts capitalism but seeks to mitigate inequality through taxation, public services, and redistributive policies.

What has replaced classical ideologies in influencing politics?

New movements like feminism, environmentalism, and multiculturalism now shape political agendas, often rooted in collectivist and egalitarian principles.

What does the “end of ideology” thesis argue?

Daniel Bell argued that Western societies have reached consensus on welfare states, pluralism, and mixed economies, reducing ideological conflict.

Why does the right–left divide still matter?

Differences in beliefs about justice, morality, and the good society continue to shape political discourse and alignments, despite blurred ideological boundaries.

1. In your opinion, are Canadians confident about their Canadian identity? What does it mean to be Canadian?

Canadians have long struggled to define their national identity, reflecting both pride and uncertainty. Unlike Americans or the French, Canadians have constantly questioned what makes them distinctive, especially when comparing themselves to the United States. English-speaking Canadians often describe their identity through values such as tolerance, multiculturalism, compassion, and collective responsibility, seeing Canada as more community-oriented and less individualistic than the U.S. Francophone Canadians, especially in Quebec, focus their identity on language, culture, and autonomy, often contrasting themselves not with Americans but with Anglophone Canada.
Therefore, while Canadians are proud of certain shared values, their identity remains ambivalent and evolving, shaped by regional, linguistic, and multicultural diversity.

2. What are ideologies, and why are they useful in thinking about Canadian politics?

An ideology is a system of interconnected ideas and beliefs about how society is organized and how it ought to function. It provides a framework—a kind of mental map—for interpreting political, economic, and social life.
Ideologies are useful in understanding Canadian politics because they:

• Clarify the reasoning behind policies and parties’ actions, such as support for welfare programs or tax cuts.

• Explain divisions and alliances within political movements (e.g., between libertarians and social conservatives).

• Help citizens and scholars classify political statements along broad traditions like liberalism, conservatism, or socialism.
  In short, ideologies make sense of why people and parties think and act politically the way they do.

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3. What is political culture, and how is it different from political ideology? What topics in Canadian political culture have political scientists studied?

Political culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, and behaviors that characterize how citizens relate to politics and government. It includes what people consider political, their attitudes toward freedom, equality, order, and authority, and how much trust or alienation they feel toward political institutions.
Political culture differs from ideology because:

• Ideology is a coherent belief system held consciously by individuals or movements.

• Political culture is a collective climate of opinion, usually absorbed unconsciously through socialization (family, education, media).
  Political scientists studying Canada’s political culture have focused on:

• Differences between English-speaking and French-speaking Canadians,

• Regional variations across provinces,

• Generational differences in values and participation,

• Levels of political efficacy, trust, and alienation, and

• Feelings of belonging to linguistic or regional communities.

4. What examples are given in the textbook or videos to illustrate the broad ideological premises of left-wing, right-wing, and centrist or moderate actions or statements? Can you think of any more examples from your media journal?

The textbook gives several examples:

• Right-wing actions/statements include editorials attacking welfare fraud, advocating workfare programs, calling for tax cuts, or opposing affirmative action.

• Left-wing actions/statements include proposals to raise the minimum wage, ban replacement workers during strikes, or increase aid to developing nations.

• Centrist or moderate actions/statements occupy a middle ground between left and right, blending market approaches with social welfare measures.
  Additional modern examples might include:

• A government carbon tax or universal basic income proposal (left-leaning),

• A balanced-budget campaign (right-leaning), or

• A public-private healthcare mix (centrist).

5. What elements can be identified as belonging to right-wing or left-wing belief systems? What is libertarianism, and how does this ideology fit within the traditional left-right spectrum?

Right-wing belief systems emphasize individualism, free markets, small government, and personal responsibility, with skepticism toward welfare expansion. They often value traditional morals and social order.
Left-wing belief systems emphasize collectivism, equality, state intervention, and redistribution to correct inequalities and promote social welfare.
Libertarianism fits awkwardly into this spectrum. Economically, libertarians are right-wing, favoring minimal state interference, but socially, they are left-leaning, supporting maximum personal freedom on moral and lifestyle issues (e.g., same-sex marriage, abortion, assisted dying). Because libertarians advocate both economic freedom and social liberty, they challenge the simplicity of the one-dimensional left-right model.

6. Is it more useful or more confusing to incorporate a second or more axes into ideological categorization? What are some examples of additional axes proposed by thinkers, and are some more useful than others?

Adding a second axis can be very useful because it captures differences missed by the simple left–right scale. For instance:

• One common two-axis model separates economic freedom from social or moral freedom, clarifying why libertarians (economically right, socially liberal) and social conservatives (economically right, socially traditional) differ.

• Other proposed axes include authoritarian–libertarian or globalist–nationalist dimensions.
  However, adding too many axes can be confusing for practical analysis. A two-dimensional grid—economic vs. personal freedom—is generally the most helpful for understanding modern Canadian politics.

7. Why do political parties in government tend to shift toward the centre in their political actions?

Parties often shift toward the centre once in government because governing requires broad appeal and compromise. Electoral success depends on winning moderate voters, not just ideological bases.
Pragmatic constraints—such as public opinion, economic conditions, and coalition-building—push governments to adopt centrist policies to ensure stability and re-election. Thus, even parties that campaign from the left or right often govern from the middle.

8. What are the differences between classical socialism, liberalism, and conservatism according to Table 2.1, and why are these three classical ideologies no longer very useful for understanding politics today? Why are they still used?

Classical Liberalism:

• Values maximum individual freedom and competitive markets.

• Prefers a limited government that exists mainly to protect personal liberty and property.

• Believes in the separation of church and state and equality of opportunity through effort.

Classical Conservatism:

• Values tradition, hierarchy, and order; individuals exist within social groups and obligations.

• Supports a strong, guiding state rooted in God and tradition, upholding law, order, and morality.

• Accepts inequality as natural and sees personal dignity in fulfilling one’s social role.

Classical Socialism:

• Values economic and social equality, collective ownership, and cooperation over competition.

• Supports state control of major industries and redistribution of wealth to benefit the working class.

• Rejects private property as the foundation of inequality.

Why these ideologies are less useful today:
Modern societies have changed:

• Class divisions have blurred in middle-class, post-industrial economies.

• Each ideology has adapted or merged with others (e.g., modern liberalism supports welfare and diversity; modern conservatism embraces markets but promotes family values; modern socialism allows limited capitalism).

• New issues—like environmentalism, feminism, multiculturalism—don’t fit neatly into classical categories.

Why they’re still used:

• Their labels remain embedded in political language, party names, and historical memory.

• They still express enduring moral and philosophical differences about freedom, equality, and justice.

• They serve as useful reference points for comparing parties and policies, even if blurred in practice.

Why is historical context important when understanding modern political ideas?

Although ideas evolve, dominant beliefs often remain anchored in long-standing core values. Even rapid changes—like growing support for same-sex marriage in Canada—are tied to enduring beliefs such as individual choice and equality.

What famous quote by Pierre Trudeau reflects Canadian liberal values?

"There's no place for the state in the bedrooms of the nation." This reflects Canada's commitment to individual liberty and personal choice in private matters.

Who was John Stuart Mill and why are his ideas still relevant today?

Mill was a 19th-century British philosopher whose principles of utility (promoting happiness) and harm (limiting government intervention unless harm is caused) continue to influence Western political thought and liberal values.

What are the three main theories explaining the origins of Canadian political ideas?

Fragment theory, formative events theory, and economic explanations. Each emphasizes different historical and structural forces shaping Canadian political culture.

What is fragment theory?

It argues that Canada’s political culture is shaped by ideological "fragments" from European parent societies, reflecting the values and beliefs of early settlers.

Why are New World societies considered "fragments"?

Immigrants brought a selective slice of European values based on their class, occupation, and ideology at the time of migration, not the full diversity of their home societies.

How does fragment theory explain the persistence of founding values?

It claims these values become dominant and institutionalized, forcing later immigrants to assimilate into the existing ideological framework.

What ideological fragment defines French Canada?

It originated as a feudal, Catholic society, influenced by pre-revolutionary France and cut off from liberal developments following the French Revolution.

How did the Catholic Church influence French Canada’s political development?

As the dominant institution, it preserved conservative, anti-liberal values well into the 20th century, shaping the province’s identity and political culture.

Who were the United Empire Loyalists and how did they shape English Canada?

Loyalists were American colonists loyal to the British Crown who fled north after the American Revolution, bringing with them a mix of liberal and conservative beliefs.

What political ideology did the Loyalists primarily support?

Although loyal to monarchy and British institutions, many Loyalists supported liberal values like elected assemblies and political rights, complicating their legacy.

Why is the concept of the “anti-American Yankee” important in Canadian identity?

It reflects the paradox of Loyalists who rejected American independence while still embracing many American liberal values, leading to an invented "British" identity.

How does the fragment theory explain the presence of socialism in Canada?

Since liberalism was not dominant in Canada’s founding ideology, conservative collectivist values allowed socialist ideas to gain more legitimacy compared to the U.S.

What is formative events theory?

This theory suggests that specific historical events shape a society’s long-term political development and ideological orientation.

How did the American Revolution shape U.S. political culture?

It created a culture of liberalism focused on individual rights, limited government, and fear of centralized power, which became foundational to American politics.

How did Canada's counter-revolutionary origins shape its political development?

Loyalist rejection of the American Revolution established a culture more open to monarchy, social order, and government authority, contrasting with American values.

Who was Seymour Martin Lipset and what did he argue about Canada?

Lipset proposed that Canada’s counter-revolutionary origins led to a more conservative and government-trusting political culture compared to the U.S.

What role did anti-Americanism play in Canadian political identity?

It became a foundational myth for English Canada, helping to define Canadian values in contrast to American liberalism, even after the decline of British loyalty.

What does the quote by poet Dennis Lee suggest about Canadian identity?

It critiques the Loyalist myth, questioning what remains of Canadian identity if not opposition to American values.

How did the 1759 British Conquest influence French Canadian identity?

It is viewed in Quebec as a foundational trauma that halted liberal and capitalist development, embedding a lasting sense of cultural and political grievance.

How did the Conquest affect Quebec’s political institutions?

The Catholic Church and conservative elites became dominant, promoting a non-liberal, agrarian society that persisted until the Quiet Revolution.

What was the ideological effect of the 1837 rebellion in Lower Canada?

The rebellion’s failure crushed liberal reformers and solidified conservative, Catholic dominance in French Canadian politics for over a century.

What eventually led to the decline of Quebec’s conservative ideology?

The Quiet Revolution in the 1960s brought rapid modernization, secularization, and liberal values, ending the Catholic Church’s dominance.

What is path dependency in political culture?

It’s a theory that emphasizes how early historical events set institutions and values on trajectories that shape future development, often becoming hard to reverse.

How does economic structure influence political ideas?

According to class analysis, political beliefs reflect the interests of dominant economic classes and the mode of production, shaping institutions and culture.

What questions does the economic explanation of culture ask?

It examines who produces political ideas, for whose benefit, how they are disseminated, and how institutions reinforce class-based power dynamics.

Why do dominant classes control the dissemination of political ideas?

They control key institutions like media, education, religion, and government, which all promote values that maintain social order and protect the economic status quo.

What is false consciousness?

A Marxist concept describing how subordinate classes adopt the dominant class’s ideology, misunderstanding or ignoring their own true interests.

How does belief in equality of opportunity reinforce class dominance?

It can mask real systemic inequalities by suggesting success is based on effort, even when empirical evidence shows persistent barriers to mobility.

Why might subordinate classes accept dominant ideologies?

These ideas often partially align with people’s lived experiences, making them seem valid even if they reinforce existing power structures.

What does Patricia Marchak say about ideology and experience?

Ideologies succeed when they resonate with personal experiences; if there's too much disconnect, people will reject them as propaganda.

Why can't false consciousness be completely false?

For an ideology to be persuasive and stable, it must contain enough truth to reflect people’s actual experiences, or else it loses credibility.

How does the class analysis differ from fragment and formative events theories?

It focuses on economic structures and class power rather than historical events or cultural inheritance as the main driver of political ideas.

What is the relationship between state authority and ideology in a class society?

The state reinforces dominant class interests through laws, institutions, and norms, presenting them as neutral or universal values.

How can symbolic events like the election of Obama support dominant ideologies?

High-profile success stories reinforce beliefs in meritocracy and mobility, even when systemic inequalities remain widespread.

What are the main premises of fragment theory about the origins of a country’s political ideas and institutions? What are Canada’s “fragments?”

Main premises

• Selective transplant: New World societies aren’t full copies of Europe; they are partial “fragments”—unrepresentative slices of the social classes, occupations, religions, and ideas of the metropole.

• Timing matters: Waves of immigration arrive during particular ideological epochs, so settlers bring the “cultural baggage” of that moment.

• Cultural genes set limits: Founding ideas don’t predetermine outcomes but act like “cultural genes” that set limits on later developments by congealing into dominant norms and institutions.

• Institutional carry-through: Early social structures and institutions (e.g., churches, constitutional arrangements) help transmit the fragment’s values across generations.

Canada’s “fragments”

• French Canada: A Catholic, pre-revolutionary/feudal fragment—hierarchical social order, clerical dominance, limited political participation; long sustained by the Catholic Church.

• English Canada: A Loyalist/liberal fragment—settled largely by United Empire Loyalists (anti-American Yankees). Debate exists over how much Tory/conservative deference mixed in, but the core habits included liberal practices (consent, elected assemblies) wrapped in British identity and recurring anti-American self-definition.

What are the most relevant formative events in the creation of Canada and USA, according to Martin Lipset? How has Canada defined itself in reaction against Americanizing its politics? Why is the British Conquest of New France in 1759 an important symbolic event?

Lipset’s key formative events

• USA: The American Revolution (1776)—a successful revolution against an oppressive state; entrenched dispersed power, weak executive, strong rights, and a lasting suspicion of government.

• Canada (English Canada): A counter-revolutionary origin—shaped by Loyalist migration north, the War of 1812, defeat of 1837–38 U.S.-style democratic reforms, and Confederation (1867) modeled on British institutions. These events reinforced order, legitimacy via crown/parliament, and greater comfort using the state.

How Canada defined itself against Americanization

• Repeated refusals of U.S. political imports and self-presentation as British/then distinctively Canadian (later through multiculturalism and other values). Even when underlying habits were liberal, elites and publics often justified “not being American,” normalizing a more activist state and different policy choices.

Why the 1759 British Conquest matters (symbolically)

• For French Canada/Quebec, the Conquest is a canonical turning point—a remembered collective rupture that shaped identity narratives (loss, subordination, and distance from English Canada). It influenced which elites dominated (long clerical–conservative leadership) and remains a deep groove in Quebec’s historical imagination.

What are the premises of the economic and class-based explanations about the origins of political ideas and institutions? What is false consciousness? Why does Brooks (2020) say in your textbook that false consciousness “cannot be totally false” (p. 44)?

Premises of the economic/class approach

• Ideas reflect power: Dominant political ideas and institutions largely embody the interests of the dominant economic class (those controlling the mode of production).

• Institutional reproduction: Media, schools, mainstream religion, and the state tend to propagate the dominant ideology—not always by ownership alone, but because they rely on social order and avoid overturning the economic status quo.

• Law & process as power: Political procedures, laws, and structures stabilize existing class relations while appearing neutral.

False consciousness (definition)

• A Marxian idea: members of subordinate classes may misperceive their real interests, accepting dominant-class ideas (e.g., meritocratic mobility myths) that justify the existing order.

Why false consciousness “cannot be totally false” (Brooks, 2020, p. 44)

• For an ideology to work, it must have some congruence with people’s lived experience (e.g., legal equality on paper; some real mobility cases). If it were completely detached from everyday realities, people would reject it—leaving only propaganda and repression to sustain authority. Hence, effective dominant ideologies blend interest-serving narratives with enough truth from daily life to feel credible.

What are the four central themes used to examine Canadian political culture, and why are they significant?

Canadian political culture is analyzed through four main themes: community, freedom, equality, and attitudes toward the state. These dimensions allow for a deep understanding of Canadians' political values, enabling comparison with other countries, especially the U.S. They also help reveal how Canadian beliefs have evolved and interact with political challenges and historical experiences.

How have Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Marshall McLuhan described Canadian identity, and what does this reveal about the Canadian political community?

Both Trudeau and McLuhan emphasized the absence of a core Canadian identity. Trudeau stated that Canada has “no core identity,” and McLuhan said Canada knows “how to live without an identity.” These views suggest that Canadian unity may stem from its inclusive and pluralistic culture, rather than a singular national identity that might marginalize minorities.

What is the concept of "political community," and how does it differ from nationalism and patriotism?

Political community refers to a collective political allegiance among citizens, without reliance on shared ethnicity, language, or culture. Unlike nationalism, which emphasizes heritage and patriotism, which often involves emotional attachment to national symbols, political community is based on common political participation and a shared belief in the value of remaining united.

How did Donald Smiley define "political nationality" in the Canadian context?

Donald Smiley’s concept of “political nationality” describes a national identity formed not through cultural or racial unity, but through shared political values and citizenship. It captures how Canadians of diverse backgrounds can feel united by democratic institutions and mutual respect, rather than cultural uniformity.

What challenges has Canadian political community faced, and how has it remained intact despite them?

Canada's political community has faced major challenges such as French-English tensions, Indigenous demands for self-governance, and regional grievances. Despite these, the country has remained united without civil war or secession. Political accommodation, constitutional longevity, and a flexible federal system have helped preserve Canadian unity.

How did the Quebec Act of 1774 contribute to French-English accommodation in Canada?

The Quebec Act granted official protections to the Catholic Church and preserved the French civil law system, allowing French Canadians to maintain key aspects of their culture. This act laid the groundwork for a tradition of compromise and accommodation between French and English Canada within a shared political system.

What role did the 1867 Constitution play in managing cultural differences in Canada?

The Constitution Act of 1867 established a federal structure that gave provinces control over education, property, and civil rights. This allowed Quebec to preserve its distinct cultural and legal systems while remaining part of Canada, reinforcing political unity through institutional flexibility.

What led to the rise of the Parti Québécois (PQ), and what does it represent?

The Parti Québécois (PQ) was formed in 1968 by uniting several Quebec sovereignty movements. It advocates for political independence for Quebec while often proposing continued economic association with Canada. The PQ has been central to debates over national unity and identity within Quebec and Canada.

What was the outcome and significance of the 1980 Quebec referendum?

In the 1980 referendum, 59.6% of Quebec voters rejected the sovereignty-association proposal. This result reaffirmed Quebec’s place in Canada and signaled that, despite nationalist sentiment, a majority of Quebecers still valued the broader Canadian political community.

How close was the 1995 Quebec referendum, and what did it reveal about Quebec society?

The 1995 referendum was extremely close, with 50.6% voting against and 49.4% in favor of Quebec independence. It revealed a deeply divided Quebec, especially along linguistic lines, and highlighted ongoing tensions between nationalism and federalism in Canadian political life.

What is the significance of declining support for Quebec independence among younger voters?

Whereas earlier generations showed strong support for sovereignty, recent surveys show younger Quebecers are less enthusiastic. This generational shift suggests that Quebec separatism may no longer pose a serious threat to Canadian unity, as nationalist sentiment weakens over time.

What was the Oka Crisis, and why was it significant?

The Oka Crisis in 1990 was a confrontation between Mohawk protestors and Canadian authorities over land claims. It exposed deep-rooted Indigenous grievances and challenged assumptions about Indigenous integration into the Canadian political community, prompting national reflection on reconciliation and sovereignty.

What does the Indigenous concept of sovereignty entail according to First Nations leaders?

Indigenous leaders assert that their sovereignty is inherent, not granted by Canada, and includes full control over political, legal, economic, and cultural affairs. They argue this sovereignty flows from their birthright, spiritual connection to the land, and distinct nationhood, not from colonial agreements.

How have land claims agreements like Nunavut and Nisga’a addressed Indigenous sovereignty?

These agreements grant Indigenous groups specific powers of self-government while recognizing that Canadian laws still apply. Though they stop short of full sovereignty, they represent compromises that acknowledge Indigenous identity and rights within the framework of Canadian federalism.

How is freedom understood differently in Canadian and American political cultures?

Americans tend to view freedom as the absence of government interference (negative freedom), while Canadians often embrace a positive view of freedom, where the state plays a role in creating the conditions necessary for individuals to thrive, such as access to education and healthcare.

What does Lipset's formative events thesis say about Canadian vs. American freedom?

Lipset argues that the U.S. was founded in revolution, promoting individual liberty and suspicion of authority, while Canada developed through loyalty to Britain and embraced order and collective welfare. This led Canadians to be more accepting of state authority and limits on personal freedom.

What did the Baxter-Moore study find about Canadian and American students' views on freedom and order?

The study found Canadian students were more supportive of peace, order, and authority, whereas American students leaned more toward valuing personal freedom even when it caused disruption. This supported Lipset's view that historical roots shape differing national attitudes toward state power.

What is the difference between negative and positive freedom?

Negative freedom is the absence of constraints or interference, often associated with American libertarianism. Positive freedom, more common in Canada, suggests that governments should actively enable citizens to exercise their rights by providing essential services and reducing inequality.

How do Canadians and Americans differ on moral freedom issues according to surveys?

Canadians are generally more liberal on moral issues such as same-sex marriage, abortion, and euthanasia. This suggests that while Canadians may favor government involvement in economic life, they also strongly support individual autonomy in personal and moral choices.

How do Canadians view government’s role in economic mobility compared to Americans?

Canadians are more likely to believe that government helps people climb the economic ladder, whereas Americans are more skeptical, often viewing government as an obstacle. This reflects differing views on the state's role in creating opportunity and reducing inequality.

What is the metaphor of Canada as a "mosaic," and how does it contrast with the U.S. "melting pot"?

Canada is described as a mosaic because it celebrates cultural diversity and encourages multiple identities to coexist. In contrast, the U.S. melting pot metaphor suggests assimilation into a unified national identity. These metaphors reflect different national approaches to integration and multiculturalism.

What argument do Breton and Reitz make in “The Illusion of Difference”?

Breton and Reitz argue that despite the symbolic differences between the mosaic and melting pot, in practice, both Canada and the U.S. exhibit similar pressures for conformity and similar levels of discrimination. The perceived Canadian superiority in tolerance is more myth than measurable fact.

How have multicultural policies evolved in both Canada and the United States?

While Canada officially adopted multiculturalism in 1971, the U.S. has implemented practical multicultural measures such as bilingual education and affirmative action. Despite differing narratives, both countries have increasingly accommodated diversity, though political backlash exists in both contexts.

How do Canadian and American attitudes toward gender equality compare?

Canada and the U.S. have both progressed significantly, though Canada ranks higher in political empowerment of women, while the U.S. performs better in economic participation. Overall, both societies show a trend toward greater gender equality, with nuanced differences in policy and outcomes.