Enlightenment Key Concepts: Philosophy, Science, and Political Ideas

Enlightenment

18th-century intellectual movement (Age of Reason/Age of Voltaire) focused on reason, science, secularism, human improvement, natural rights, and criticizing tradition.

Natural science

Applying scientific method to understand the natural world and later human society; influenced philosophes.

Reason

Core belief of Enlightenment—logic and rational thinking should guide society rather than tradition, superstition, or Church authority.

Deism

Belief that God is a rational "watchmaker" who created the universe and natural laws but does not interfere with it.

John Locke

English philosopher; believed in natural rights, consent of the governed, social contract, right to rebel, tabula rasa.

Humans in a state of nature

Locke's idea of humans before government—free, equal, but need a government to protect rights.

Two Treatises of Civil Gov't

Locke's work arguing against absolutism and for natural rights, consent of the governed, and right to overthrow tyranny.

Consent of the governed

Government only has authority if the people agree to be ruled; power comes from the people.

Natural rights

Rights all humans are born with—life, liberty, property.

Social contract

Agreement where people give up some freedom so government can protect natural rights (Locke) or general will (Rousseau).

Right to rebellion

If government fails to protect rights, citizens can overthrow it (Locke).

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Locke's book—argues that humans are born as blank slates and knowledge comes from experience.

Tabula rasa

"Blank slate"; humans are born without innate ideas—shaped by environment and education.

Religious toleration

Philosophes believed religion should be free from intolerance and fanaticism; people should choose their beliefs.

Pierre Bayle

Skeptic; believed all beliefs are relative, attacked superstition and religious intolerance; wrote Historical and Critical Dictionary.

Philosophes

Enlightenment intellectuals (mostly French) who wrote about reform, reason, liberty, deism, free speech; 'Republic of Letters.'

Voltaire

French philosophe; criticized Church and absolutism; supported free speech and religious tolerance; 'Écrasez l'infâme.'

"écrasez l'infame"

Voltaire's phrase: 'Crush the infamous thing'—referring to superstition, Church intolerance, and religious tyranny.

Baron de Montesquieu

Wrote Spirit of the Laws; promoted separation of powers and checks and balances.

Spirit of Laws

Montesquieu's work proposing separation of powers between executive, legislative, and judiciary.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Believed society corrupts humans; emphasized emotion over reason; general will; wrote Social Contract and Emile.

Social Contract (1762)

Rousseau's idea of government based on the general will of the people, not monarchy.

General will

Collective will of the people aiming at the common good; basis for political authority.

"Noble savage"

Rousseau's belief that humans are born pure and good but corrupted by civilization.

Emile

Rousseau's work on education—children are naturally good; education should develop natural abilities, not suppress them.

Denis Diderot

Editor of Encyclopedia—compiled Enlightenment ideas to spread knowledge and criticize established authority.

The Encyclopedia

28-volume set of Enlightenment knowledge edited by Diderot; aimed to secularize learning.

Marquis de Beccaria

Author of On Crimes and Punishments—against torture and death penalty; punishment should fit the crime.

Physiocrats

French economic thinkers like Quesnay; supported laissez-faire and agricultural productivity.

Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations

Argued for capitalism, free markets, competition, and the "invisible hand"; government should only protect rights and enforce laws.

Laissez-faire

Economic policy meaning "let do"—government should not interfere in the economy.

"Invisible hand"

Adam Smith's idea that individual self-interest unintentionally benefits society through market competition.

Salon movement

Gatherings (often hosted by women) where Enlightenment thinkers discussed ideas and spread philosophy.

Madame de Geoffrin

Influential salon hostess who supported and financed philosophers and artists.

Madame de Staël

French salonnière who criticized absolutism and supported constitutional monarchy and individual freedom.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Early feminist; wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman—argued women deserve education and rights.

David Hume

Skeptical philosopher; argued humans are ruled by emotion and habit rather than pure reason.

Immanuel Kant

Wrote "Dare to know!" Emphasized morality through reason ("Categorical Imperative").

Classical liberalism

Enlightenment-based ideology: natural rights, limited government, free speech, free markets.

Enlightened Despotism

Absolute rulers who adopted Enlightenment reforms while keeping power (Catherine, Frederick, Joseph II).

Frederick the Great

Prussian king; reformed laws, promoted education, religious tolerance, called himself "first servant of the state."

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

Shift in alliances—France allied with Austria; Prussia with Britain before the Seven Years' War.

Catherine the Great

Russian czarina; embraced Enlightenment reforms early, but after Pugachev Rebellion became more conservative.

Pugachev Rebellion

Serf uprising in Russia; led Catherine to end her Enlightenment reforms and give nobles more power over serfs.