psych exam 2 uncut

cognition

thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

cognitive psychology

The study of how people think, learn, and remember.

concepts

categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences

prototype

the best example or representation of a concept

natural concepts

concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world

artificial concepts

defined by a specific set of characteristics (triangle vs. square)

schema

mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

role schema

assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave (ex. firefighter)

event schema (cognitive script)

a set of behaviors that feel like a routine (elevator)

language

communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another

lexicon

the words of a given language

grammar

the set of rules that are used to convey meaning of the lexicon

phoneme

the basic sound unit of a given language

morphemes

the smallest units of language that convey meaning

semantics

the process by which we derive meaning from words, phonemes, morphemes

syntax

the way that words are organized into sentences

B.F. Skinner - language

languages is learned through reinforcement

Chomsky

language acquisition is biologically determined

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

language determines thoughts

problem-solving strategy

plan of action to find a solution

trial and error

continue trying different solutions until problem is solved

algorithm

step-by-step problem to solving a problem

heuristic

general problem solving framework, working backwards taking it step by step

mental set

persistence in using past problem-solving patterns that are not working

functional fixedness

mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for

anchoring bias

focus on one piece of information that confirms existing beliefs

hindsight bias

belief that the event that just happened was predictable even though it wasn't

representative bias

unintentionally stereotype someone or something

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind even though it might not be the best example to inform your decision

crystallized intelligence

acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it

fluid intelligence

ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions

practical intelligence

street smarts

analytical intelligence

academic problem solving and computations

creative intelligence

inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation

multiple intelligences theory

Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence

emotional intelligence

understand the emotions of yourself and others

cultural intelligence

relating to the values of a culture

creativity

ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities

divergent thinking

thinking outside the box

convergent thinking

correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem

Intelligence quotient

score on a test to measure intelligence

standardization

administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent

norming

giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups

alfred binet

pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)

Weschler

developer of WAIS and WISC intelligence tests

Flynn effect

each generation has a slightly higher IQ than the last

representative sample

accurately represents the population

standard deviations

describe how data are dispersed in a population and give context to large data sets

range of reaction

each person's response to the environment is unique based on his or her genetic make-up

Arthur Jensen

IQ is determined by genetics

dysgraphia

A learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting.

dyslexia

impairment of the ability to process letters

Dyscalculia

Also known as developmental arithmetic disorder; a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation.

Memory

set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time

Encoding

input of information into the memory system

Automatic processing

encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words

Effortful processing

encoding of information that takes effort and attention

Semantic encoding

input of words and their meaning

Visual encoding

input of images

Acoustic encoding

input of sounds, words, and music

Self-reference effect

tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

Storage

creation of a permanent record of information

Sensory Memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

Short-Term Memory (STM)

holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used

Rehearsal

repetition of information to be remembered

Long-term memory (LTM)

continuous storage of information

Explicit memory

memories we consciously try to remember and recall

Episodic memory

type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory

Semantic memory

type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts

Implicit memory

memories that are not part of our consciousness

Procedural memory

type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim

Retrieval

act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness

Recall

accessing information without cues

Recognition

identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue

Relearning

learning information that was previously learnedEngram: physical trace of memory

Equipotentiality hypothesis

some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories

Amygdala

structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

Hippocampus

structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory

Cerebellum

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

Prefrontal cortex

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

Arousal theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

Flashbulb memory

exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

Amnesia

loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

Anterograde Amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma

Retrograde Amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma

Reconstruction

process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information

Suggestibility

effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

Misinformation effect paradigm

after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event

False memory syndrome

recall of false autobiographical memories

Forgetting

loss of information from long-term memory

Transience

memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time

Absentmindedness

lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

Misattribution

memory error in which you confuse the source of your information

Bias

how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events

Persistence

failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones

Proactive interference

old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

Retroactive interference

information learned more recently hinders the recall of older informationMemory-Enhancing Strategy: technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory

Chunking

organizing information into manageable bits or chunks

Elaborative rehearsal

thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory