The 'Golden Age' of the Weimar Republic, 1924-28

Comparison of 1929-32 and 1924-28 in terms of political stability

• In comparison of early Weimar years and 1929-32, the years 1924-28 can be interpreted as a time of political stability

Summary of political violence in these years

• Political violence receded and there were no attempts by extremist groups to overthrow the Republic by force

• Parties of the extreme left and extreme right suffered a loss of support in the elections of these years

What did the election of Hindenburg show

• The election of Hindenburg in 1925 can also be seen as a sign that traditional conservatives were beginning to adapt and accommodate to the new reality of a democratic republic

Summary of the weaknesses in the Weimar political system

• Weaknesses in the political system remained

• Stable cabinets were as elusive as they had been in the post-war years

• Parties represented narrow sectional interests - making it difficult for politicians with a national appeal and national programme to emerge

Summary of political divides within Weimar

• Although Weimar Republic’s politicians understood the need to compromise in order to establish coalition governments

• Their parties however and the interests of those they represented, placed severe constraints on their freedom of action

Summary of coalition governments

• Due to political divides were fragile and temporary alliances

• Even in the favourable circumstances of 1924-28, stable governments proved impossible to achieve and respect for democratic institutions was further eroded

The old elite’s attitudes to the Republic

• Old elites were firmly entrenched in the army, the civil service and the judiciary

• They were hostile to parliamentary democracy and held firm to the view that the Republic was born out of betrayal of the Fatherland

Old elite’s view on Hindenburg’s election

• Helped to some extent in reconciling the elites to the existence of the Republic

• But only because the old elites believed that Hindenburg would steer Germany back towards a more authoritarian form of government

Industrial workers’ attitudes towards the Republic

• Believed that the Republic had not delivered on its promises of greater equility and social justice

• Felt that the crushing of revolts by the army and the police at the orders of democratically elected politicians, was clear evidence that parliamentary democracy was failing

Middle-class’ attitudes towards the Republic

• Middle-class support for moderate political parties was vital for the succeeding of the Weimar Republic, as elite and worker support was a a minority

• There were many among the middle class who continued to prosper and were supportive of the republic

• However, especially among the Mittelstand, lower-middle class who had suffered a significant decline in their incomes as a result of hyperinflation

• People in this group welcomed the return of economic stability under Stresemann and political stability under Hindenburg, but their resentment of the Republic itself continued to linger

How Hindenburg was elected

• Ebert, first president of the Weimar Republic died on 28 Feb 1925

• There was then a national election for the next President

• Under the terms of the Constitution, a candidate had to receive more than 50% of the vote

• However due to the final round of the vote being three way, Hindenburg won with 48.3%

Hindenburg’s views

• Was a ‘symbol of the past’

• Had authoritarian views

How people viewed Hindenburg

• Liked by the right, regarded his election as the beginning of the restoration of the old order

• For others, Hindenburg was the ‘substitute emperor’ (Ersatzkaiser) and his election was a major step away from parliamentary democracy - however in the short-term proved to not be true

Hindenburg’s actions after being elected

• Took his presidential oath

• Appealed to the parties in the Reichstag to work with him in restoring national unity

• Stuck closely to the letter of the Weimar Constitution and did not abuse his powers

Hindenburg’s later actions when president

• By the early 1930s Hindenburg was becoming increasingly impatient with this party polical manoeuvring at a time of serious economic crisis and he used his power to rule by decree on a routine basis

• Therefore after 1925, presidential power was in the hands of a man who did not believe in democracy and was not prepared to defend it against its enemies

How the pro-democracy parties failed to achieve a stable democratic system

• Deputies in the Reichstag did not represent a particular constituency

• Proportional representation meant deputies were chosen from party lists to represent a large area - no connection between a deputy and their constituents

• Deputies were not allowed to display any individuality

• Factional rivalries also weakened many parties

• Party leaders when becoming ministers in coalition cabinets would prioritise protecting the interests of their own party / group rather than prioritising wider national interest

• Brought dispute into the parliamentary system and support for democratic institutions suffered as a result

The SPD

• During 1924-1928 remained the largest single party in the Reichstag

• Had a leading role in the establishment of the Weimar Republic - had the aim of seeing a successful democratic government

• However SPD only participated in one of six coalition governments - couldn’t let go of its original Marxist trademark

• This made the party unwilling / inflexible to make the compromises needed for participation in coalition governments

• SPD had close links with trade unions and appealed mainly to industrial workers - had limited appeal to young people and to women - and no support among farmers, agricultural workers or the Mittelstand

The Centre Party

• Was originally established to defend the interests of the Roman Catholic Church in the German Empire - still remained its priority in the Weimar Republic

• Due to being based on religious affiliation - appeal crossed classes and occupations

• Centre Party was supported by industrial workers + industrialists, farmers + their landlords, together with professional groups like teachers

• Broad appeal made party more flexible than the SPD, but tended to cause divisions over social and economic desicions

• No coalition government was formed without the Centre Party - vital to success of Weimar democracy

• However grew to the right when the new leader, Bruning, was less committed to parliamentary democracy than Marx

The DDP

• Liberal DDP was in decline by the mid-1920s

• Appeal was mainly to academics and professional groups

• Composed of worthy intellectuals that had limited political experience

• Party had internal disputes - had great difficulty clearly displaying what it stood for

• Nevertheless a party committed to the success of parliamentary democracy and participated in all coalition governments

The DVP

• Conservative party

• DVP was highly committed to parliamentary democracy and participated in all the coalition cabinets of this period

• Main support came from industrialists - some from academics

• After Stresemann’s death in 1929 the party drifted to the right + became a pressure group promoting interests of big businesses

The DNVP

• Conservative, nationalist party

• DNVP broadened appeal in the 1920s beyond its original base of landowners

• By mid 1920s had attracted support from multiple industrial and professional groups

• Was anti-democratic and nationalist, main aim of restoring the monarchy and dismantling Versailles Treaty

• Due to being Anti-Weimar, the party refused to join coalitions

• However growing number of youth members caused the party to join the Luther 1926 cabinet and 1927 cabinet

• However suffered a massive loss of support in the 1928 Reichstag election - caused party to return to being anti-democratic

• Shift to the right confirmed by Hugenberg becoming their new leader in 1928 - led the party in 1929 into an aliliance with the Nazis in a campaign against the young plan

The NSDAP

• Nazi Party entered a period of decline after the failed 1923 Munich Putsch

• Hitler was released from prison early - however unable to rebuild his party due to the party and SA being banned, and was not allowed to speak in public until 1927

• At the end of 1927 the party only had 75,000 members and 7 deputies in the Reichstag

• Nazis lost 100,000 votes in 1928 Reichstag election, but gained some share of votes in north due to them concentrating their efforts in rural areas of the country

• By 1929 had a grown membership of 150,000 and took control of its own town council in October of the year, meaning the party was showing signs of revival

The KPD

• German Communist Party was the largest communist party outside Russia

• However never became a mass party

• Had support in industrial areas and in Berlin

• Dedicated to overthrow of the Weimar Republic

• Tactics of KPD were dictated by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

• Communist uprisings in Saxony and Hamburg were ruthlessly suppressed by the army

• After 1924 the KPD was ordered to shift their tactics to attacking the SPD as a party which was betraying the working class

Elections

• 2 elections in 1924, where over 61% voted for pro-republican parties in both the May and December elections, and after the May election extremist parties fell (Nazis and Communists - had about 3% of vote each)

• Political developments showed that democratic parties were struggling to provide stable govs with widespread support

• 1928 election showed a further decline in extremist and anti-republican parties - share of votes went lower to 2.6%

• However KPD managed to revive some of their seats

Parties with highest + lowest amount of support in elections between 1924-28

• The SPD (Social Democrat Party) commanded the most amount of support in elections in this period

• The NSDAP (Nazi) Party commanded the least amount of support in elections in this period

Coalition governments

• There were 7 coalition governments between November 1923 and March 1930

• Coalition governments throughout the short history of the Republic were unstable

• Only 6 of the 23 cabinets between 1919 and 1932 had majority support in the Reichstag

Party’s loss of seats in 1924-28 in coalition governments

• Loss of seats from 1924-28:

• KPD - 8

• USPD - 0

• SPD - 0 - gained 53

• Zentrum - 3

• DVP - 0

• DNVP - 22

• Nazis - 20

Weaknesses of coalitions

• Proportional representation - although gave each party a representation - made it hard / highly unable to gain a majority in Reichstag (Number of seats proportional to number of votes)

• Governments were unable to plan for the long-term - such as the 1926 Luther cabinet collapsing from a dispute over flags

• The Grand Coalition in 1928 led by Herman Muller offered more potential for a stable government

1928 Grand Coalition

• Led by Hermann Muller of the SPD

• One of the longest-lived coalition of Weimar - remained in office until March 1930

• Despite established in June 1928, parties involved only started agreeing on policies in spring 1929

• Due to ongoing disputes over budget and foreign policy, arguably the coalition only survived due to the strong relationship between Muller and Stresemann, the Foreign Minister

Summary of elections and coalition governments

• Pro Weimar parties have had the most stable support during 1924-1928

• Anti-Weimar parties only began to rise in the period of the ‘Golden Age’

• Almost all parties suffered a loss in seats

Berlin’s nightclubs

• Showed cultural and personal freedom within vibrant nightlife - especially after 1924

• Clubs in Berlin allowed individuality - such as the Eldorado - those who were forced to confine their sexuality could display it openly in the club described as the ‘supermarket of eroticism’

• Played American jazz music, mainly played by black American musicians

• Many comedians in these clubs attacked politicians and authoritarian attitudes

• Older, more traditional Germans regarded the Berlin nightclub scene with horror

• Hated the influence of the USA on German cultural life and attacked Weimar relaxed cultural censorship. Felt order and discipline was destroyed and that German society was becoming morally degenerate

Art

• Weimar Germany experienced the Expressionist movement in art

• Expressionist painters believed their art should express meaning or emotion rather than physical reality

Music

• Expressionism influenced German classical composers - attempted to convey powerful emotions rather than traditional music

Literature

• Expressionism was a key influence of German literature - focused on character’s mental states rather than on social reality

• Common themes in literature was revolt against parental authority

Theatre

• German dramatists incorporated expressionist ideas into their productions

• Much of experimental theatre in Weimar Germany was explicitly political - attacked capitalism, nationalism and war

• A form of music theatre was developed to symbolise Weimar Berlin - satire which was left-wing and treated middle classes as villains

Film

• Berlin became in important centre for world cinema - developed modern techniques that would be later exploited by Nazi propaganda

The position of women - the ‘new woman’

• At the time there was the idea of the ‘new woman’ in Weimar Germany

• As Constitution had given women equality with men in voting rights and in access to education, and equal pay

• However Constitution still went by the Civil Code of 1896 - stated in marriage the man had the right to decide on all matters concerning family life and his wife

• League of German Women (BDF) - most popular women’s group in 1920s, had around 900,000 members

• However group did not support the idea of the ‘new woman’ and instead promoted traditional family values and responsibilities

• Same view in the church and political parties - suggests the ‘new woman’ was a cultivated myth

The myth of the new woman vs reality

• Employment - myth was that by 1925, 36% of German workforce was women, and that there were 100,000 female teachers and 3,000 female doctors

• However the ‘demobillisation’ laws after war required women to leave their jobs so ex-soldiers could find employment

• Women were required to leave employment when married, and were paid less then men for doing equivalent work

• Sexual freedom - myth was that divorce rates increased, number of abortions went up to 1 million per year, and birth control were more available + birth rate declined

• However abortion was seen as a criminal offence and performed by unqualified - estimated 10-12,000 deaths each year

• Decline in birth rate attacked by conservative politicians + churches opposed birth control, divorce + abortion

• Politics and public life - myth was that women gained equal voting rights, and opportunities to work in Reichstag

• In 1919 41 women were elected to Reichstag + active in local government

• However there were no female representatives in the Reichstag - no women became a cabinet member during Weimar Republic

• No parties gave support to feminist issues despite attracting women - only the KPD

Young people

• Widespread concern that young people in Weimar Germany were breaking free of constraints of family, school and religion, and turning to crime and anti-social behaviour

• Children of working-class families were leaving school at 14, and beginning apprenticeships / employment - however there were fewer of this during the Weimar years

• Young people suffered from the rise in unemployment during 1924 - in 1925-26 17% of unemployed were aged 14-21

• Young were seeking employment when employers were reducing their workforce

• Benefits system provided some help - centres set up to prove youths with skills needed to find work - but couldn’t compensate for lack of employment opportunity

Education

• Germany prided itself on having one of the best state education systems in Europe

• Schools called Gymnasiums - for those aiming for university, and Realschule, for those aiming for apprenticeships

• There were little elite private schools in Germany, but education system was still divided along class

• Gymnasiums drawn from the middle and upper classes

• Education reforms aimed to reduce this divide, only partially successful

• Main reform in Weimar period was the introduction of elementary schools - all children would attend for the first 4 years of education - if they didn’t pass the entry exam for the Gymnasium, would continue elementary for 4 years

• Reforms failed to remove influence of churches influence in teachings from school, further also political parties

Youth groups

• Wandervogel (‘wandering birds’) - set up in 1896 by a Berlin schoolteacher, consisted of mainly middle class boys

• Were highly nationalistic and romanticised Germany’s past, hated cities and industrialism, spent time in forests, lakes and rivers - rejected middle class social conventions

• Church youth group - Catholic church group had many groups aimed at different sections of young people

• However Protestants did not give youth work as a high priority and their groups had far fewer members - in both religions tasks of youth groups were to promote religious observance and instil respect for church, family + school

• Political youth groups - all main political parties had their youth sections

• Largest was Bismarck Youth of DNVP, had 42,000 members by 1928, whereas the Hitler Youth had a membership of only 13,000

The Jews

• More than half a million Jews living in Germany under the Weimar republic, 80% of Jews lived in cities and were will educated, meaning many Jews felt more German than Jewish

• German Jews’ achievements in Weimar Republic were remarkable - German Jews achieved prominence in politics and press

• Jews had large influence in the publishing of books + newspapers, and dominated theatre + cinema

Jews - industry, commerce and professions

• German Jews achieved considerable wealth and influence in industry and commerce

• Such as the Rathenau family controlling the engineering firm AEG until 1927

• Jewish firms dominated coal-mining + steelworks, but still had little importance in western industrial areas of the Rhineland or Ruhr

• Jews were immensely successful in professions, especially law and medicine

• 16% of lawyers were Jewish and same with 11% of doctors. More than half the doctors in Berlin by 1930 were Jewish, and almost 2,000 were Jews

• 24% of Nobel Peace Prizes went to Jews

The extent of assimilation and anti-Semitism

• Vast majority of German Jews wished to assimilate (keeping their cultural identity but becoming fully integrated + accepted into mainstream German society)

• Many Jews now looked like ‘other’ Germans, married non-Jewish spouses and converted to Christianity

• By late 1920s assimilation was far advanced - however was limited by Germans continuing to identify Jews as ‘alien’

• Despite antisemitism being a part of violent nationalism groups, between 1924 and 1930, as Germany entered its Golden Age, antisemitism was pushed to the fringes of public and political life

• However there was still opposition to perceived Jewish influence with frequent accusations of corruption and exploitation by Jewish bankers + businessmen

1924 social welfare reforms

• Modernisation of the Public Assistance system - provided to help the poor

1925 social welfare reforms

• Extended the state accident insurance system - helps those injured at work - extended to cover those suffering from occupational diseases

1927 social welfare reforms

• Introduced the national unemployment insurance system - provided benefits for the unemployed - financed by contributions from workers and employers

Expenses of the welfare system

• By 1926, the state was supporting 800,000 disabled war veterans, 360,000 war widows and over 900,000 war orphans

• In addition to old age pensions and after 1927 the unemployment benefits

• Means tests were tightened to ensure claimants were not cheating the system, and there were increasing delays in paying benefits

• Resulted in those in need of support and benefits feeling that they were being humiliated and insulted by the welfare system - undermining their support for the Weimar Republic

Reparations after the Dawes Plan finished

• Dawes Plan was only ever meant to be a temporary settlement of the reparations issue

• Allied forces remained in occupation of the Rhineland - French wouldn’t agree to withdraw these forces until a final settlement of the reparations issue had been agreed

The Young Plan

• Stresemann - who continued to serve as Foreign Minister after his coalition government collapsed , agreed that the issue should be considered by an international committee, headed by the American businessman Owen Young

What the Young Plan included

• Obliged Germany to continue paying reparations until 1988

• Total reparations bill was considerably reduced - only had to pay £1.8 billion instead of the original £6.5 billion

• However the amount Germany have to pay annually increased

• Foreign control over reparations ended, responsibility to pay reparations was placed solely on the German government

• In return Britain and France agreed to withdraw all troops from the Rhineland by 1930

Oppositions to the Young Plan

• Leader of the right-wing DNVP organised a nationwide campaign against the plan

• Involved other conservative groups - including Hitler and the Nazis

• Campaign group drew up a law - called the ‘freedom law’ which they demanded to by submitted to national referendum

• Involved rejecting the war guilt clause and driving out occupied areas

• A petition was launched in support of the law 0 attracted 4,135,000 signatures - went to a Reichstag debate where the referendum was rejected

• However the fact that 5,825,000 or 14% of the electorate voted for the law was an indication of the depth of support for the right-wing nationalism

Industry

• American loans helped stimulate Germany’s industrial growth

• Industrial output grew after 1924 - however didn’t reach 1913 levels until 1929

• However the economy shrank in 1928 and 1929, resulted in investment in factories falling by 1929

• Industrial strikes were at its lowest in 1926

Living standards

• Rose as wages increased from 1924

• 1925, 180,000 dwellings were made to tackle the severe housing shortage in Germany (due to massive population growth), and 205,000 houses in 1926

• Money was spent on welfare payments and health improvements - new relief schemes launched in 1924

Wages and striking

• Strikes in German industry declined in 1924-28 due to the new system of compulsory arbitration

• Both sides in an industrial dispute have an independent figure decide on a solution

• However employers felt this was biased - as it was in favour of the trade unions and they resented state interference in affairs

• A 1928 dispute in wages in the iron + steel industry in the Ruhr resulted in a small wage increase for these workers

• Eventually spread to increases in all workers wages each year

• 1927 - wages rose by 9%, rose by another 12% in 1928L

Limits to economic recovery

• Before his death in 1929, Stresemann stated in a speech that the ‘economic position is only flourishing on the surface

• Unemployment continued to be a problem in these years

• Reached over 3 million unemployed by March 1926 - due to spending cuts, companies reducing workforce to make efficiency savings

• Mining companies reduced their workforce by 136,000 between 1922 and 1925

• White-collar workers didn’t enjoy industrial wage rises

• By late 1920s industrial sector wages were level with those of middle class - sometimes exceeded them

Agriculture

• Farmers gained very little from the economic recovery

• Farmers borrowed from banks, and had to use their farms as security for the loans, when they were unable to repay the loans due to prices (and profit) falling, banks ‘foreclosed’ on the contract - and took over the farms and evicted farmers

• Known as foreclosure

• 1928 - farmers initiated a series of small-scale riots - known as the ‘farmers revenge’ - in protest against foreclosures and low market prices

• By 1929 agricultural production was at less thn 3 quarters of pre war levels

Issues with reparations

• Stabilisation of the economy relied on settling reparations disputes

• Mainly domestic issues

Introduction of the Dawes Plan

• Stresemann asked the Allies’ Reparations Committee to set up a committee of financial experts to address Germany’s repayment concerns

• American banker Charles Dawes acted as the new committee’s charman

• Dawes plan was finalised in April 1924 - after Stresemann’s government fell, although Stresemann remained as foreign secretary and took credit for most of what the plan achieved.

What the plan included

• Amount paid each year by Germany reduced until 1929

• Hopefully their economy will by stable by then, then annual pay will rise again by 2,500 million marks and would be related to German industrial performance

• Germany would receive a large loan of 800 million marks from the USA to help this plan get started and for investment in German infrastructure

Charles Dawes

• American banker and politician

• Became US Vice-President in 1924

• Dawes and Stresemann were joint awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925 for resolving the reparations issue

Reichstag debates over the Dawes Plan

• Stresemann himself didn’t believe in the plan - called it an economic armistice

• National opposition (mainly DNVP and the small-scale right wing Nazis at the time) attacked the plan, and wanted Germany to defy the Versailles Treaty and refuse to pay reparations completely

Benefits the Dawes Plan brought to Germany

• Allies finally recognised Germany’s problems with repaying reparations, rather than before when they believed this was fake

• Loans were granted, provided new factories, houses and jobs - helped rebuild economy

• French left the Ruhr during 1924-25 once Germany would restart repaying and occupation could no longer be justified

The stabilisation of the currency

• August 1923 - government of Cuno collapsed during the hyperinflation crisis - was replaced by a coalition led by Gustav Stresemann

• His coalition - ‘great coalition’ was the first in Weimar Republic to include partiesform both left and right

• When he started the Republic was in serious political and economic difficulty

• After he left office in November, the currency was stabilised, inflation under control and attempts to overthrow republic failed

The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr

• Was called of in September 1923

• Unpopular and risky move - was what resulted in the Beer Hall Putsch

• However Stresemann stated there was no alternative

• Ending this meant government stopped paying workers who weren’t working for the french

• Was an essential first step towards reducing government expenditure

The issuing of a new currency

• November 1923 - Rentenmark reduced - replacced old, worthless Reichsmark

• One Rentenmark = one trillion old marks

• Once currency was successfully launched, government kept tight control over amount of money in circulation to prevent another inflation crisis

• By August 1924 the Reichsmark was completely gone and Rentenmark in full effect

• Inflation ceased to be a problem

Balancing the budget

• Stresemann’s government cut expenditure and raised taxes

• Salaries of government employees cut, 300,000 civil servants lost their jobs

• Taxes raised for both individuals and companies

• Confidence restored as debt fell

• Weaker companies that relied on credit fell

• Bankruptcy rose to 6000 by 1924 - meant that only the well-managed companies survived

• Strengthened the operating of the Germany economy