AP Psychology Unit 1 (Part 3) + Unit 2 (Part 1)

Phantom Limb

Gate-Control Theory

Gestalt

An organized whole; Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Signal Detection Theory

Predicts when we will detect a weak stimulus; may be influenced by physiology, experience, and expectations

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation required to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time

Kinesthetic Sense

Vestibular Sense

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Bottom-Up Processing

Occurs when we are unfamiliar with environment; information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Top-Down Processing

Occurs when we bring our expectations and prior knowledge to an environment; information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Perception

The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful

Weber’s Law

Two stimuli must differ by a minimum percentage rather than a constant amount for the difference to be noticeable

Olfaction

Sound Location

Our brain detects differences in sound received by our two ears and uses this information to localize sound

Opponent-Process Theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green; explains afterimages

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors — one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue — which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a consequence of constant stimulation

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Synesthesia

Monocular Depth Cues

Relative Height - objects higher in our fov are perceived as farther away

Relative Motion - as we move, stable objects might appear to move

Relative Size - similar objects appear smaller when farther away

Linear Perspective - parallel lines appear to converge to meet in the distance

Interposition - when one object partially blocks another, we perceive it as closer

Light and Shadow - shading produces sense of depth consistent with our assumptions of where light comes from

Binocular Depth Cues

Retinal Disparity - difference between retinal images from the two eyes

Convergence - inward rotation of our eyes as we focus on closer objects

Light Wave Characteristics

Frequency/Wavelength - Hue/Color

Amplitude - Intensity/Brightness

Sound Wave Characteristics

Frequency - Pitch

Amplitude - Volume

Figure-Ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

Accomodation

The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina

Sensorineural vs. Conductive Hearing Loss

Sensorineural - damage to hair cells or auditory nerve; can be treated with cochlear implants; happens with age as hair cells die

Conductive - damage to the middle ear (eardrum, ossicles); can be caused by Q-tips

Visual Cliff

A model of a cliff used to test depth perception in infants and young animals; shows that we are born to be wary of heights, and experience amplifies that fear

Cornea

The eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris; protects the eye and bends light to provide focus

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Rods

Receptor cells that detect black, white, and gray, and are necessary for peripheral and night vision; share bipolar cells

Cones

Retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations; most have dedicated bipolar cells

Blind Spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

Optic Nerve

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Eardrum

Tight membrane in the middle ear; vibrates from sound waves and transfers vibration to the ossicles

Ossicles

Hammer, anvil, stirrup; amplify and relay sound vibrations from the eardrum to the cochlea

Oval Window

The cochlea’s membrane covered opening; vibrates from the stirrup to jostle the fluid inside the cochlea

Cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

Basilar Membrane

Ripples when the fluid inside the cochlea moves, triggering hair cells

Hair Cells

Receptor cells that line the basilar membrane in the cochlea; moves with sound waves and sends neural impulses to the auditory nerve

Auditory Nerve

Carries auditory neural messages to the thalamus and then on to the auditory cortex in the brain’s temporal lobe