Lecture 2 - Cognition and brain

What is the role of afferent nerves?

Afferent nerves carry sensory information from the body to the central nervous system (CNS).

What do efferent nerves do?

Efferent nerves transmit motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

What is the Encephalization Quotient (EQ)?

EQ compares observed brain size to predicted brain size based on body mass, using regression models across species.

What are neurotransmitters?

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Which hemisphere is associated with positive emotions?

The left hemisphere, linked to joy and expectation.

Which hemisphere is linked to negative emotions?

The right hemisphere, associated with fear and reluctance

How is intelligence defined in animals?

Intelligence includes adaptability, learning ability, and information processing. It can be described through cognitive domains.

What are the dimensions of animal consciousness (Birch et al., 2020)?

• Perception

• Emotional responses

• Unity (integration across brain regions)

• Temporality (time perception)

• Selfhood (self-awareness)

What is episodic memory?

Episodic memory is the ability to recall specific events, including context like time and place.

What is memory consolidation?

The process by which short-term memories are stabilized into long-term storage.

What is true imitation?

True imitation involves replicating both the goal and the specific actions of another individual.

Where is the face recognition center located?

In the prefrontal cortex, which helps discriminate between facial images.

What cognitive mechanisms support animal navigation?

Animals use cognitive maps—mental representations of spatial environments—to navigate. These maps are supported by specialized brain structures like the hippocampus, and some species also use magnetoreception, the ability to detect Earth's magnetic fields, to orient themselves.

What are grid cells and place cells, and where are they located?

• Place cells are neurons in the hippocampus that activate when an animal is in a specific location.

• Grid cells, located in the entorhinal cortex, fire in a grid-like pattern and help create a coordinate system for spatial navigation.
  Together, they form the neural basis for spatial memory and navigation.

What is latent learning?

Latent learning is learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior

What is a cognitive map?

A mental representation of spatial relationships or environments, created through latent learning. It allows an individual to navigate or make decisions without direct sensory input.

What is semantic memory?

Semantic memory is general world knowledge—facts, concepts, and meanings—built over many experiences and interactions (e.g., knowing that Paris is the capital of France).

What are the main types of long-term memory?

• Declarative (Explicit) Memory: “Knowing that”—memories that can be consciously recalled.

  • Semantic memory: General knowledge and facts.

  • Episodic memory: Personal experiences and events.

• Procedural (Implicit) Memory: “Knowing how”—skills and habits, such as riding a bike or playing an instrument.

What is the function of the Thalamus?

Acts as a relay station for sensory information, directing signals to the appropriate brain areas for processing.

What is the function of the Hypothalamus?

Controls emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone production (via the pituitary gland). It regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and stress responses.

What is the function of the Cerebrum?

Responsible for conscious thought, reasoning, memory, and voluntary muscle control. It integrates sensory and motor functions and supports language and emotion.

What is the function of the Mesencephalon (Midbrain)?

Processes visual and auditory information, generates reflexive motor responses, and helps maintain consciousness and alertness.

What is the function of the Pons?

Relays sensory information to the cerebellum and thalamus; coordinates breathing and sleep-wake cycles; involved in subconscious motor control.

What is the function of the Medulla Oblongata?

Regulates vital autonomic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and digestion; connects the brain to the spinal cord.

What is the function of the Cerebellum?

Coordinates balance, posture, and precise motor movements; fine-tunes motor activity and supports learning of complex motion sequences.

What are the main categories of cognitive skills?

• Perception: Visual and auditory perception—interpreting sensory input.

• Attention: Focused, sustained, and divided attention—managing mental focus.

• Memory: Short-term, working, long-term, visual, and auditory memory—storing and using information.

• Logical reasoning: Deductive (rule-based) and inductive (pattern-based) reasoning—used for problem solving and understanding.

Which are the main neurotransmitters in the brain?

1. Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

2. Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)

3. Dopamine

4. Serotonin

5. GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

6. Acetylcholine

7. Glutamate

8. Endorphins

What is adrenaline (epinephrine) and where is it produced?

Produced mainly in the adrenal medulla and partly in the brainstem. Involved in the fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate, blood flow, and alertness.

What is noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and its role?

Produced in the locus coeruleus (pons). Enhances attention, alertness, and stress response; constricts blood vessels to maintain blood pressure.

What is dopamine and where is it produced?

Produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area (VTA). Regulates reward, motivation, movement, and pleasure. Dysregulation is linked to Parkinson’s disease and addiction.

What is serotonin and where is it produced?

Synthesized in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem. Affects mood, sleep, digestion, and emotional regulation. Exercise and sunlight increase serotonin levels.

What is GABA and its main function?

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter, produced throughout the brain (especially in the basal ganglia and cortex). It calms neural activity—low levels can cause anxiety.

What is acetylcholine and where is it produced?

Produced in the basal forebrain and brainstem. Involved in learning, memory, attention, and muscle activation. Also linked to wakefulness.

What is glutamate and what does it do?

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, essential for learning and memory. High levels can cause neural overstimulation; low levels impair cognition.

What are endorphins and where are they produced?

Produced in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. Act as natural painkillers and create feelings of euphoria during exercise, excitement, or stress relief.