What is Terrorism?

What are the waves of terrorism?

1. anarchist

2. anti-colonial

3. revolutionary

4. religious extremism

Do waves disappear?

No, waves don’t disappear but fade

What is happening to the religious extremism wave?

The religious extremism wave is fading

How can extremists form networks without having direct contact?

They create a network through shared ideology. They can be influenced by each other’s extremist acts or talk online.

What role do manifestos play?

Manifestos are created to influence others and can mention the ideologies of others

What is a ‘salad bar’ ideology

Ideology is taken from various ideologies, taking a little bit from each.

What demographics make the media more likely to define an act as terrorism?

If the perpetrator is male or racialized

What is an example of how governments play a role in framing terrorism?

Luigi Mangione is being charged with terrorism, which is unusual for shooters

Why is there a lack of a universal definition?

States often avoid consensus due to political implications

What are two core components of terrorism?

Violence and propaganda

What is the timeframe of the anarchist wave?

1880s-1920s

What is the ideology of the anarchist wave?

Anti-state, revolutionary

What are the tactics of the anarchist wave?

assassinations, bombings

What is the timeframe of the anti-colonial wave?

1920s-1960s

What is the ideology of the anti-colonial wave?

national liberation

What are the tactics of the anti-colonial wave?

guerrilla warfare, assassinations

What is the timeframe of the New Left wave?

1960s-1980s

What is the ideology of the New Left wave?

Marxist, anti-imperialist

What are the tactics of the New Left wave?

Hijackings, kidnappings, urban bombings

What is the timeframe of the Religious wave

1979-present

What is the ideology of the Religious wave?

Religious extremism, especially Islamist

What are the tactics of the Religious wave?

suicide attacks, mass casualty terror

What are the indicators of a shift to a fifth wave of terrorism?

1. rise of non-religious actors: white supremacists, incels, eco-fascists

2. digital radicalization, lone actors, no formal group links

3. new tactics: livestreamed attacks, hybrid ideologies, racialized/gendered targets

Who are the primary/direct victims of terrorist acts or campaigns?

Those who are on the receiving end of direct violence or threats of violence

Who are the ten terrorist audiences?

1. The adversary/ - ies of the terrorist organizations

2. the constituency/ society of the adversary/ -ies

3. the targeted direct victims and their families and friends

4. others who have reason to fear that they might be the next targets

5. “neutral” distant audiences

6. the supporting constituency of the terrorist organization

7. potential sympathetic sectors of domestic and foreign audiences

8. other terrorist groups rivalling for prominence

9. the terrorist and his or her organization

10. the media

When was the first time the word terrorism was used

French Revolution 1794

Which of the following is a form of terrorism: hostage taking, organized crime, extremism, trafficking?

hostage taking

How many terrorist attacks worldwide were recorded during 2016?

11,072

What was the value of insurance property losses attributable to the 9/11 terrorist attacks?

$25 billion

How does Hoffman characterize terrorism?

• ineluctably political in aims and motives;

• violent or threatens violence

• designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target;

• conducted either by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure or by individuals or a small collection of individuals directly influenced, motivated, or inspired by the ideological aims or example of some existent terrorist movement and/or its leaders; and

• perpetrated by a subnational group or nonstate entity

How do different state agencies define terrorism?

Terrorism is defined depending on the agency’s specific security interests, legal frameworks, and policy objectives.

How was the word ‘terrorism’ popularized during the French Revolution?

Terrorism had a positive connotation and was used during the Reign of Terror to establish order and enforce revolutionary ideals through political violence.

Why is terrorism so difficult to define?

Terrorism is difficult to define because it encompasses a wide range of political violence, motivations, and methods, leading to divergent interpretations based on cultural, legal, and situational contexts.

Where did the term ‘terrorism’ originate from?

The term 'terrorism' originated from the French Revolution, specifically from the period known as the "Reign of Terror" (1793-1794), during which the government employed violence and fear to suppress dissent.

What are the four different typologies of terrorism?

Perpetrator-centred, methods and tactics-centred, motive-centered, location-centred

What are Perpetrator-centred typologies?

Regime repressive state terrorism, non-state terrorism, anarchist terrorism, revolutionary terrorism, etc.

What are Methods and tactics-centred typologies?

These typologies categorize terrorism based on the techniques used, such as bombings, assassinations, or cyber attacks, emphasizing the operational methods employed by terrorist groups.

What are Motive-centred typologies?

These typologies classify terrorism based on the underlying motivations for the acts, such as ideological, political, religious, or social objectives that drive terrorist behaviour.

What are location-centred typologies?

These typologies categorize terrorism based on the geographic areas where acts occur, such as domestic, transnational, or international terrorism.

What is a key difference between terrorism and some other forms of political violence?

The victim of violence is generally not the ultimate target of the terrorist threat. Terrorism often aims to instill fear in a broader audience, influencing political or social change, rather than focusing solely on direct conflict with an enemy.

Ben Saul defined terrorism with what five points?

1. Any serious, violent, criminal act intended to cause death or serious bodily injury, or to endanger life, including by acts against property;

2. where committed outside an armed conflict;

3. for a political, ideological, religious, or ethnic purpose; and

4. where intended to create extreme fear in a person, group, or the general public, and:

   1. seriously intimidate a population or part of a population, or

   2. unduly compel a government or an international organisation to do or to abstain from doing any act

5. Advocacy, protest, dissent, or industrial action which is not intended to cause death, serious bodily harm, or serious risk to public health or safety does not constitute a terrorist act.

Four Waves of Modern Terrorism

Rapoport’s model of four generational cycles—Anarchist, Anticolonial, New Left, and Religious—each with distinct motives and tactics.

Anarchist (First) Wave

1880s–1910s era marked by dynamite assassinations, martyrdom, and media-focused spectacular violence.

Anticolonial (Second) Wave

1920s–1960s struggle for national self-determination; terrorists targeted police, used guerrilla tactics, and built cellular networks.

New Left (Third) Wave

1960s–1980s revolutionary and international phase inspired by the Vietnam War, famous for hijackings and hostage crises.

Religious (Fourth) Wave

Post-1979 period where faith—especially political Islam—justifies violence; features suicide bombings and transnational networks.

Narodnaya Volya (The People’s Will)

Russian movement (1879) considered the first modern terror group; used symbolic assassination to awaken the masses.

Martyrdom

Deliberate embrace of death by terrorists—through suicide attacks or courtroom defiance—to dramatize their cause.

Dynamite

New explosive of the 19th century that enabled first-wave bombing attacks, often killing attacker and target alike.

Passenger Planes as Bombs

Tactic debuted on September 11, 2001: hijacked airliners used as guided missiles causing massive casualties.

International Terrorism

Third-wave pattern of cross-border cooperation, global targets, and multinational assault teams.

Airline Hijacking

Signature 1970s tactic for publicity and hostages; exceeded 100 incidents per year at the peak.

Hostage Crisis

Terrorist tactic of seizing captives to coerce governments, exemplified by Aldo Moro’s 1978 kidnapping.

State-Sponsored Terrorism

Governments’ covert use of militant groups (e.g., Libya, Iran, Syria) to pursue foreign policy goals.

Suicide Bombing

Fourth-wave method first popularized by Lebanese Shiites; attacker’s self-death guarantees detonation success.

Al Qaeda

Sunni Islamist network founded by Osama bin Laden, training global militants and aiming to expel Western influence from Muslim lands.

September 11, 2001

Coordinated Al Qaeda attacks using hijacked planes against U.S. targets; hallmark of the Religious wave.

PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)

Key third-wave group that trained international terrorists and dominated Middle East militancy after 1967.

Cellular Structure

Decentralized organization of small, semi-independent cells that hinders police infiltration.

Diaspora Support

Aid from expatriate communities—money, arms, lobbying—crucial to second-wave anticolonial campaigns.

Publicity of Violence

First-wave doctrine that spectacular terror and courtroom speeches would mobilize public sentiment and erode regime legitimacy.

Combatant vs. Noncombatant Distinction

Rule of war intentionally violated by terrorists who target civilians for psychological effect.

Hope as Lubricant

Rapoport’s idea that rising expectations after political turning points energize terrorist mobilization.

French Revolution and ‘Terror’

Origin of the term terrorism, when revolutionary tribunals used systematic violence to enforce virtue (Robespierre).

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

1914 killing by Young Bosnia/Black Hand that ignited WWI and ended the first wave of terror.

International Counterterror Cooperation

Joint actions—intelligence sharing, sanctions, extradition—used to combat terrorism, e.g., after the 1988 Lockerbie bombing.

Aum Shinrikyo

Japanese cult that released sarin gas in Tokyo’s subway (1995), showing terrorists’ interest in chemical weapons.

Christian Identity Movement

U.S. extremist ideology combining millenarian Christianity with white supremacy; linked to militia activities and Oklahoma City.

Assassins (Hashshashin)

Medieval Shia sect whose self-sacrificial killing inspired modern notions of suicide terrorism.

Robespierre’s ‘Virtue and Terror’

Maxim asserting terror as an essential tool for establishing democracy during the French Revolution.

Passenger Hijacking to Jordan (1970)

PFLP seizure of Western airliners that led Jordan to expel the PLO, illustrating risks of international attacks.