Y10 Psychology: Psychological Problems

What is (unipolar) depression?

A mood disorder causing periods of feeling sad and lacking motivation to do everyday activities.

List 5 symptoms of depression.

Not enjoying activities you used to. Feeling suicidal or attempting suicide. Lack of self-esteem. Poor appetite / increased appetite. Extreme tiredness not relieved by sleep. Poor sleep.

What aspects of modern living might be contributing to more people getting depression?

Social media...comparing yourself to others online could lead to lack of self-esteem, poor sleep, feelings of guilt or blaming yourself for problems.

Describe some ways depression affects individuals with the illness.

Increased risk of suicide (10-15% of people with extreme depression commit suicide). Lack of motivation. Extreme tiredness. Poor sleep.

Describe some ways depression affects society.

It costs the government a lot of money (approx. £1.7 billion per year) to treat people with depression. This money has to be raised through taxes.

What is addiction?

A mental health problem that means people need a particular thing - a substance or activity - in order to be able to avoid negative feelings and go about their normal routine.

List 5 symptoms of addiction.

A feeling that you need to take a substance / continue the activity. Finding it difficult to stop or reduce the use of the substance / the activity. Physical withdrawal symptoms (shaking, sweating, vomiting). Increasing tolerance of the substance / the activity. Replacing normal, fun activities with time spend using the substance / doing the activity. Ignoring evidence that the use of the substance / the activity is harmful.

What are the most common addictions in the UK?

Heroin, alcohol, nicotine.

How can addiction affect someone's quality of life?

They may end up ignoring their family, having problems at work, spending more and more of their money on their addiction.

Describe some ways addiction affects society.

Someone with an addiction may not be able to go a long time without taking the substance / doing the activity, making them unable to work. If lots of people cannot work, this can damage the nation's economy.

What are genes?

Stretches of DNA that determine how your body develops.

Explain how twin studies can provide evidence for genes being a cause of depression (refer to MZ / DZ twins and concordance rates).

Twin studies have found that there is a higher concordance rate (probability that two people have the same disorder) for depression amongst monozygotic twins (share 100% same DNA) than dizygotic twins (share 50% same DNA). That identical twins are more likely to both have depression might mean their genes are partly to blame.

How does the Diathesis Stress Model explain depression?

Somebody might have inherited a particular gene which predisposes them to get depression (makes it more likely they will get depression) but this gene has to be triggered, or switched on, by stressful life events. A mix of nature factors (genes) and nurture factors (life events).

What evidence did McGuffin (1996) find, supporting the genetic explanation (refer to concordance rates)?

That if one MZ twin became depressed there was a 46% chance that their co twin would become depressed (concordance rate 46%). Also that if one DZ twin became depressed there was a 20% chance that their co twin would become depressed (concordance rate 20%).

Why does McGuffin's evidence not totally support the genetic explanation of depression?

If genes were the only cause of depression, then you would expect the concordance rate for MZ twins to be 100% - if they have the same genes and one of these genes causes depression, if one twin has depression then this must mean the other will get it too. Because it is only 46%, this must mean environmental factors also play a role in depression.

What is a strength of the genetic explanation of depression?

If genes can explain depression, then this may take away the stigma of being diagnosed with depression. This avoids blaming the person for being depressed.

Mcguffin

Why is the genetic explanation of depression 'reductionist'?

Because it ignores other factors that can explain depression, such as stressful life events (e.g. a death in the family).

Why is the genetic explanation of depression 'deterministic'?

Because it assumes that if you have certain genes you will become depressed. Others believe we have free will and choice over whether we become depressed.

What is 'cognitive theory'?

The theory that behaviour can be explained by how we think.

Referring to explanations of depression, what is Beck's 'negative triad'?

A set of 3 negative thought patterns, about the self, future and world.

Give two examples of 'cognitive biases' someone with depression might demonstrate.

Overgeneralisation (drawing sweeping conclusions based on single incidents). Magnification (seeing problems as far worse than they are).

Why can't post-natal depression be explained very well by cognitive theory?

Post-natal depression can be explained better by changes in levels of certain hormones in the body.

How does the cognitive theory suggest that people have some free will over whether they develop depression? Is this a strength or weakness of this explanation?

Because it says depression is caused by our thought process, which we can control (free-will). This can be considered a strength; it suggests people have the ability to change and overcome depression.

One criticism of the cognitive explanation of depression is the 'chicken and egg dilemma'. What does this mean?

That it is difficult to tell whether irrational thoughts are a cause of depression or a symptom of being depressed.

The cognitive explanation has led to which useful treatment for depression being developed?

CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy).

What does C B T stand for?

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.

What are the two aims of CBT when treating depression?

1) To help the patient change the way they think. 2) To help the patient change the way they act, to improve the symptoms they are having.

What are the 3 stages of CBT when treating depression?

1) Patient discusses their symptoms with the therapist. 2) The therapist helps the patient challenge their irrational and negative thoughts. 3) Patients are then taught and practise more rational and positive thought processes.

What evidence did the NHS publish to suggest CBT is an effective treatment when combined with their previous treatment?

They found depressed patients improved more when given CBT alongside antidepressant drugs.

How does Beltman's study support the use of CBT as a treatment for depression?

He found depressed patients treated with CBT improved more than those who were still waiting for treatment or not receiving any treatment.

Describe a strength of CBT treament for depression?

It may be a longer lasting treatment for depression than using drugs. Patients develop skills they can use in future.

Why are there potential ethical issues with CBT treatment for depression?

CBT may be emotionally difficult to participate in (protection of participants) - patients may be unhappy to be told their thoughts are irrational.

Why might CBT be ineffective for depressed people?

It relies on patients wanting to change their behaviour; yet, a symptom of depression is a lack of motivation.

Name the neurotransmitter thought to be linked to depression.

Serotonin.

How is serotonin linked to developing depression?

A lack of serotonin in the brain is thought to be a cause (or symptom) of depression.

One type of anti-depressant drug are SSRIs. What does SSRI stand for?

Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitors.

How do SSRIs work? How do they help ease the symptoms of depression?

They stop serotonin being re-uptaken into the pre-synaptic neuron, leaving more serotonin in the synapse for longer.

Describe (a) two strengths and (b) two weaknesses of anti-depressant drugs as a treatment for depression.

A) They can improve a person's symptoms enough to make it easier for them to benefit from CBT. Also, research shows approx. 65% of depressed patients show improvements when given antidepressants. B) Unlike CBT, drugs do not address the causes of depression, such as faulty thinking patterns. Also, they have unpleasant side effects, such as drowsiness, insomnia and even suicidal feelings.

What were the 2 aims of Caspi's study?

1) To see why stressful experiences lead to depression in some people but not others. 2) To investigate the role of the '5-HTT gene', to see if it contributed to depression.

What was the sample size in Caspi's study?

847 people.

In Caspi et al's study, from the age of what, to the age of what, were the participants studied?

3-26 years of age.

What is an allele?

Alleles are variants of the same gene. For each gene, one allele is inherited from each parent.

In Caspi et al's study, into what 3 groups were participants divided?

Group 1: two copies of the short version of the 5HTT gene. Group 2: one copy of the short and one copy of the long version of the gene. Group 3: two copies of the long version of the gene.

In Caspi et al's study, how were the participants' stressful life events measured?

Via a questionnaire.

In Caspi et al's study, in what 2 ways were the participants' symptoms of depression measured?

Participants completed a questionnaire on their own symptoms of depression. Also, an 'informant' was asked to rate the participants' depressive symptoms.

In Caspi et al's study, what % of participants experienced no stressful life events?

30%

In Caspi et al's study, what % of participants had experienced depression?

17%

In Caspi et al's study, which 2 groups of participants showed an increased likelihood of experiencing depression and suicidal thoughts after stressful life events?

The groups with at least one short version of the 5HTT gene.

What did Caspi et al conclude based on their results?

A) There is an interaction between the 5HTT gene and stressful life events in causing depression (diathesis stress model explanation). B) People with at least one short version of the 5HTT gene are more likely to suffer depression after stressful life events.

Which explanation for depression did Caspi's results provide evidence in support of?

The diathesis stress model.

What are 2 strengths of Caspi's study?

Large sample size - findings can therefore be generalised to a wider population. Also, a useful application is that we can identify who might be more susceptible to depression, based on their genes, and advise them to minimise their stressful experiences.

What is the problem with using questionnaires to measure participants' stressful life events / symptoms of depression?

People may not give accurate information - they may respond to a social desirability bias and try to paint themselves in a more positive light.

Describe the genetic explanation for addiction.

The explanations suggests that genes, which we inherit from our parents / ancestors, cause addictions.

What would you expect twin studies to show if there was a genetic cause behind addiction?

You would expect a higher concordance rate (probability that two people have the same disorder) for addiction amongst monozygotic twins (share 100% same DNA) than dizygotic twins (share 50% same DNA).

Strengths of genetic explanation for addiction

Carmelli found that in MZ twins, if one was a smoker, the concordance rate for the other twin being a smoker was higher than if the twins were DZ.

Bkum et al found that alcoholics were more likely to have the DRD2 gene than non alcoholics

Weaknesses of genetic explanation for addiction

Suarez et al found no significant difference between people with and without the gene and the likelihood of addiction. Role of genes is inconclusive

Reductionist- environmental factors. eg twins usually grow up in the same environment, so addiction could be due to that not genes

Given that the genetic explanation fails to consider all factors, how can it be described?

As being reductionist!

How does operant conditioning theory suggest we learn behaviours, such as addictions?

It suggests we learn to repeat behaviours based on the consequences of the behaviour. Rewards make us more likely to repeat behaviour. This reward is called 'reinforcement', as it reinforces the behaviour.

What is meant by (a) positive reinforcement and (b) negative reinforcement?

A) When something positive / pleasant is added to a situation which encourages you to repeat a behaviour. B) When something negative / unpleasant is removed from a situation which encourages you to repeat a behaviour.

Given an example of how positive reinforcement might encourage someone to develop an addiction.

After taking a drug, someone might experience a high / pleasurable feeling. This acts as positive reinforcement, as it encourages them to take the drug again, in order to feel the same high.

Given an example of how negative reinforcement might encourage someone to develop an addiction.

When someone hasn't taken a drug for a while, they begin to develop cravings for the drug, and withdrawal symptoms, as they want to feel the same high again. Taking the drug then removes these unpleasant feelings, encouraging them to carry on taking it to avoid these feelings again.

What is the practical application for the learning theory explanation for addictions?

If addictions are learned, it means it might be possible to unlearn addictions.

Why might the learning explanation of addiction be called reductionist?

It fails to consider the role genes might play in determining whether someone develops an addiction.

What does CBT treatment for addiction aim to help patients understand?

The triggers for their addictive behaviours and then how they can control and manage these behaviours.

What are the two stages of CBT treatment for addiction?

Functional analysis and skills training.

What does functional analysis during CBT sessions to treat addiction involve?

Looking closely at the addict's behaviour and working out what makes them turn to their addiction.

What does skills training during CBT sessions to treat addiction involve?

Learning ways or skills to avoid engaging in the addictive behaviour, such as learning how to cope with cravings.

Describe two strengths of CBT treatment for addiction.

Young's (2007) study found CBT was effective in treating people with internet addiction. Also, it provides patients with skills to manage their addictions in the long-term.

Describe one weakness of CBT treatment for addiction.

It requires motivation to change addictive behaviours and this can be a challenge for some people.

Drug treatment for addiction aims to reduce the negative effects of detoxification - what does this mean?

'Detoxification' is the process of trying to stop taking the drug that someone is addicted to.

What are the symptoms of withdrawal that drug treatment for addiction aims to reduce?

Sweating, insomnia, shaking, headaches.

Explain how methadone can help heroin addicts through the process of detoxification.

When addicts stop taking heroin, they experience cravings for it as their body has become used to it. Methadone is a drug that has a similar effect on the brain to heroin, yet is less dangerous. So taking methadone can help reduce the addict's cravings for the drug and help them avoid the negative withdrawal symptoms.

Explain two strengths of drug treatment for addiction.

It can improve a person's symptoms enough to make it easier for them to benefit from CBT. Also, research suggests drugs are effective - Suck Won Kim (2001) found 75% of gambling addicts treated with the drug Naltrexone showed a significant improvement in their symptoms.

Describe one weakness of drug treatment for addiction.

Giving patients with an addiction medication may make their problems worse in the long-term as they may become dependent on this medication.

What was the aim of Young's study?

To see how effective cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) would be for those suffering from internet addiction.

What was the sample size in Young et al's? Where were they from?

114 people, with a roughly equal number of males and females. From the USA.

How did Young et al ensure that only participants with an internet addiction took part?

All participants had completed the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) and were shown to have an addiction to using the internet.

How many online CBT sessions did participants in Young et al's study take part in?

12

In Young et al's study, to measure the effectiveness of the CBT, what did participants complete after the 3rd, 8th, and 12th session, and then again 6 months later?

A 'client outcome questionnaire'.

Name 2 of the 'outcome goals' that were being measured in Young et al's study.

Motivation to quit abusing the internet, ability to control offline activities, improved relationships, improved offline sexual functioning.

What did Young et al find were the most common problems faced by the internet addicts?

Time' and 'relationships'.

Based on the results from the client outcome questionnaire, what trend did Young et al find in the effectiveness of the online CBT sessions?

Continuous improvement in patients' ability to control their problem behaviours.

What 2 conclusions did Young et al draw, based on her results?

CBT is an effective treatment for internet addiction. Also, CBT can provide long-term benefits for addicts (they still reported improvements after 6 months).

What is the useful, practical application of Young et al's findings?

The study tells us that online CBT can be an effective treatment for addiction - this may be cheaper and more accessible for many addicts.

Why can Young et al's results be said to be high in reliability?

The study used the same questions for all participants. Participants were then asked the exact same questions at different intervals. This means a standardised procedure was used.

Why is it a problem (with Young et al's study) that participants recorded their own behaviour and feelings through questionnaires?

They may have responded to a social desirability bias and gave false answers to paint themselves in a more positive light.

Define (a) nature and (b) nurture.

Nature refers to the biological factors that can influence a person's behaviour (e.g. inherited genes). Nurture refers to the environmental factors that can influence a person's behaviour (e.g. stressful life events).

Which explanation of (a) depression and (b) addiction is an example of a 'nature perspective'?

The genetic explanation.

What are the strengths of the nature perspective in Psychology?

Mcguffin

Carmelli

Blum et al

What are the weaknesses of the nature perspective?

suarez et al

some people with these genes dont suffer with problems- other causes

suggest we dont have free will (deterministic)

What are the strengths of the nurture perspective in Psychology?

Nurture explanations consider a wide range of influences upon people's behaviour. Also, they offer the hope of resolving their problems by changing their environment or experiences. ie not reductions

What are the weaknesses of the nurture perspective?

difficult to test