AP World History - Period TWO Textbook Notes

Unit 3

The Steppes and Siberia: The Making of a Russian Empire

• Moscow expanded to an empire due to aggressive territorial expansion and military strength.

• Motivations for Siberian conquest included fur trade, wealth, and expansion of Russian Orthodox Christianity.

• The Russian Empire was vast, covering diverse ethnic groups and territories.

Experiencing the Russian Empire

• Conquered peoples faced pressure to convert to Russian Orthodox Christianity but could retain their cultural practices.

• Yasak, or tribute, was demanded from conquered peoples, often in furs.

• Russians showed more tolerance toward the religious practices of conquered peoples than European colonizers in the Americas.

• Siberia saw changes due to population influx and natural resource exploitation.

• Siberia and the steppes became incorporated into the Russian state through a mix of military conquest and cultural assimilation.

Russians and Empire

• Conquered populations influenced Russian culture, language, and politics.

• Russia expanded westward, seeking influence in Europe.

• Peter and Catherine the Great implemented reforms to Westernize and strengthen Russia.

• Russia’s interactions with other Asian powers varied but included trade, alliances, and conflict.

• Russia’s empire-building differed from Western Europe due to its reliance on land-based expansion and relatively lower maritime activity.

Asian Empires

• Asian empires differed from European ones by focusing on land-based expansions and less emphasis on overseas colonization.

Making China an Empire (Qing Dynasty)

• The Qing Dynasty rose to power through military conquest and consolidating control over former Ming territories.

• The Qing treated nomadic tribes with military campaigns rather than trade-based interactions like their predecessors.

• Qing expansion included the conquest of the Zunghar Mongols.

• The Qing used the Court of Colonial Affairs to manage conquered territories and maintained a policy of non-assimilation.

• The Qing imperial state transformed Central Asia through political control and demographic changes.

Muslims and Hindus in the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire was established through military conquest and cultural integration.

• Akbar promoted religious tolerance, attempted to unite diverse religious groups, and reformed administrative policies.

• Akbar’s tolerance faced resistance, particularly among conservative Muslim factions.

• Aurangzeb reversed Akbar’s policies, leading to increased tensions and resistance among the population.

Muslims and Christians in the Ottoman Empire

• The Ottomans rose to power through military conquest and centralized governance.

• The Ottoman political system was structured around a powerful sultanate.

• Turkish social life included some roles for women in the home and public spheres.

• The Ottomans managed religious issues and provided some autonomy to Christian communities, allowing them to retain their faith under Ottoman rule.

• Christians sometimes welcomed Ottoman rule for its relative tolerance and protection.

• Devshirme was a system of forced recruitment of Christian boys, converted to Islam and trained as soldiers or administrators.

• Europe viewed the Ottoman Empire as both a threat and an advanced civilization.

Cultural Transformations

Western Christendom Fragmented: The Protestant Reformation

• Causes included corruption in the Catholic Church, rising literacy, and questioning of Church doctrines.

• Martin Luther was central to the Reformation, challenging Church practices and promoting salvation through faith.

• Protestant Christianity emphasized direct access to scripture and individual faith, contrasting with Catholicism’s structured hierarchy.

• The Reformation had limited impact on women’s roles within the church or society.

• The ideas spread quickly due to the printing press and social/political support.

• The Thirty Years’ War was a religious conflict with devastating effects on European society.

• The Catholic Reformation sought to counter Protestant ideas and reform the Church’s practices.

Christianity Outward Bound

• Protestant settlers in North America did not focus as heavily on missionary work as Catholics.

• Missionaries spread Christianity globally, with greater success in Spanish America and the Philippines due to political control.

Conversion and Adaptation in Spanish America

• The Spanish conquest was often interpreted as divinely sanctioned.

• Conversion impacted women by enforcing new religious norms but diminishing traditional roles.

• Spanish authorities suppressed native traditions but faced resistance.

• Taki Onqoy was a native resistance movement opposing Spanish religious imposition.

• Christianity blended with native practices, resulting in a unique syncretic faith in Mexico.

An Asian Comparison: China and the Jesuits

• In China, Christian missionaries found less success due to cultural resistance and the Jesuits’ limited focus on elite groups.

• The Jesuits adopted Chinese customs to gain acceptance but saw limited conversion rates.

• The Pope’s intervention in Chinese rites weakened Jesuit influence.

Expansion and Renewal in the Islamic World

• Wandering Islamic holy men helped spread Islam in remote areas.

• Southeast Asia’s diversity reflected Islam’s adaptability.

• Orthodox rulers opposed syncretism, advocating stricter interpretations of Islam.

• Wahhabism emphasized a return to early Islamic practices, significantly influencing Arabian Peninsula society.

China: New Directions in an Old Tradition

• The Ming Dynasty promoted Confucianism and integrated Buddhism and Daoism.

• Wang Yangming’s ideas reinterpreted Confucianism to emphasize personal morality.

• Kaozheng emphasized empirical research and had a lasting intellectual impact.

• Urban culture thrived in cities, leading to popular forms of entertainment and social gatherings.

India: Bridging the Hindu/Muslim Divide

• Akbar’s state cult mixed Hindu and Muslim elements, promoting court unity.

• The Bhakti movement emphasized personal devotion, crossing Hindu-Muslim boundaries.

• Mirabai, a Bhakti poet, challenged social norms and promoted religious unity.

• Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak, promoted a monotheistic faith blending Hindu and Muslim elements and became influential in the Mughal Empire.

Unit 4

Europeans and Asian Commerce

• European involvement in Asian commerce was driven by desires for spices, silk, and other exotic goods.

• The Black Death reduced the European population, increasing wealth per capita and driving exploration.

• Mediterranean trade routes were dominated by Islamic empires, limiting European access to Asian goods.

A Portuguese Empire of Commerce

• The Portuguese entered Indian Ocean trade through military conquest and establishing key trading posts.

• The "trading post empire" controlled strategic points rather than territories.

• They adapted to existing Indian Ocean trade patterns, eventually weakening as they failed to dominate trade comprehensively.

• The Portuguese Trading Post Empire declined by 1600 due to competition and internal challenges.

Spain and the Philippines

• Spanish exploration in Asia focused on spreading Christianity and creating a colonial empire.

• Spain took control of the Philippines through military force and religious missions.

• Filipino society became heavily influenced by Spanish culture and Catholicism.

• Manila became a significant trade center, connecting Asia to the Americas and Spain.

The East India Companies

• The Dutch and English displaced the Portuguese using more powerful naval and commercial resources.

• The British and Dutch East India Companies were state-supported trading corporations with military powers.

• The Dutch East India Company was harsh with local populations, enforcing monopolies on spices.

• The British East India Company was less violent, focusing on trade agreements rather than direct control.

• Both companies shared monopolistic practices and commercial-military influence.

Asians and Asian Commerce

• Europeans had a limited role in Asian commerce compared to their dominance in the Americas.

• Japanese daimyo and samurai structured Japan’s society and foreign policies.

• The Tokugawa Shogunate isolated Japan from Europeans, restricting foreign influence.

• Japanese traders remained active in Southeast Asia despite Tokugawa policies.

• Asian merchants continued to dominate regional trade, benefiting selectively from European demand.

Silver and Global Commerce

• The silver trade had global impacts, linking economies through demand and currency systems.

• China’s economy relied heavily on silver, creating a demand for global silver imports.

• European trade networks expanded as silver flowed between the Americas, Asia, and Europe.

• Potosí, Bolivia, became a key silver mining center, enriching Spain but creating harsh labor conditions.

• Spain’s power grew but faced inflation and dependency on silver.

• Japan used silver to centralize power and stabilize its economy.

• China’s economy grew and urbanized, with silver as a primary currency.

The “World Hunt”: Fur in Global Commerce

• The Little Ice Age increased demand for fur in Europe.

• Europeans traded extensively with North American indigenous tribes for furs.

• North American tribes benefited economically but faced ecological and social costs.

• The fur trade introduced alcohol and European goods, impacting indigenous societies negatively.

• Many Native American groups adapted to and leveraged the fur trade.

• The Russian fur trade paralleled North America’s, with similar trade dynamics but under direct imperial control.

Commerce in People: The Transatlantic Slave System

• The transatlantic slave system forcibly transported Africans to the Americas for labor.

• The African diaspora spread African culture and influence across the Americas.

The Slave Trade in Context

• Historical slavery varied in forms, often tied to war and servitude.

• The Atlantic slave trade was distinct due to racial dimensions and its economic scale.

• The trade developed as European colonies grew and demanded labor.

• Racism played a foundational role in justifying the enslavement of Africans.

The Slave Trade in Practice

• Europeans and African leaders both engaged in the Atlantic slave trade.

• The Middle Passage was brutal, with overcrowded ships and high mortality rates.

• Slaves were taken from various African regions, primarily to the Caribbean and Brazil.

• Maroon societies formed as communities of escaped slaves, resisting colonial powers.

Consequences: The Impact of the Slave Trade in Africa

• The slave trade reshaped African societies, economically and demographically.

• African women faced increased burdens as societies adapted to male population losses.

• The slave trade had varied impacts, with some African kingdoms benefitting economically, while others faced societal collapse.

Additional Notes (Unit 3 & 4 ):

Unit 4: Transatlantic Slave Trade

Overview of the Slave Trade

• Beginning of the Trade: Portuguese first brought African slaves to the Americas in 1441, mainly to work on sugar plantations (the #1 cash crop in the New World).

• Distribution: 90% of African slaves were taken to the Caribbean and South America.

• Forcible Captures: African slaves were forcibly taken to the Americas, often through violent means.

• Initial Participation: African kingdoms, like the Asante and Kingdom of Kongo, initially participated in the trade for profit, supplying prisoners of war and criminals.

Evolution of the Slave Trade

• European Exploitation: Over time, Europeans exploited these trade relationships and asserted control over African kingdoms.

• Chattel Slavery: The brutal system of chattel slavery emerged, characterizing slaves as property rather than human beings, with their children also becoming enslaved.

• Middle Passage: Journey from Africa to the Americas was marked by horrific conditions; over half of slaves died en route due to lack of food and water.

• Cultural Impact: African traditions, languages, and cultures spread through the African diaspora, forming syncretic religions.

• Resistance: African and enslaved communities resisted the slave trade through figures like Ana Nzinga and established Maroon societies.

Demographic Changes in Africa

• Family Structure: Families were often split apart; a higher proportion of women and children emerged, and polygamy became common for lineage preservation.

Labor Systems in the Americas

• Encomienda System: Grants to landowners (encomenderos) allowed exploitation of Native Americans for labor; most natives perished due to mistreatment and disease, leading to reliance on African slaves.

• Hacienda System: Replaced encomienda; wealthier colonists leveraged private land and African slave labor, perpetuating socioeconomic inequality.

• Casta System: Spanish colonies established racial and social hierarchies based on skin color and parentage, elevating creoles and creating a majority mestizo population.

• Mit’a System: Imposed by the Spanish to extract free labor for silver mining in Potosí, Bolivia; led to widespread suffering and death among Native Americans.

Unit 3: Causes of Protestant Reformation

Background

• Religious Abuses: Corruption and power of the Catholic Church, including the buying and selling of pardons and church offices.

• Financial Incentives: Indulgences became a significant revenue source for the Church, targeting those concerned with salvation.

• Christian Humanism: Movement in Northern Europe aimed to reform culture, education, and religion.

• Printing Press: Facilitated the spread of new ideas.

Key Figure: Martin Luther

• Introduction: Former Catholic monk; witnessed Church abuses firsthand in Rome.

• 95 Theses: Published in Wittenberg, criticizing church practices and arguing for salvation through faith alone.

• Promotion of the Bible: Advocated for access to the Bible in the vernacular.

Catholic Counter-Reformation

• Response to Reform: The Catholic Church enacted changes in response to the Protestant Reformation through the Council of Trent.

• Reforms: Prohibited the sale of indulgences, improved clergy conduct, and banned heretical literature. The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) was also established to promote Catholic education and spirituality.

Effects of the Protestant Reformation

• Religious Effects: Addressed Church abuses and called for a return to simplicity in worship.

• Political/Economic: Shifted control of religious institutions and wealth to leaders; instigated warfare and political fragmentation (e.g., Thirty Years’ War).

• Social Impacts: Restricted women's roles to housewives and mothers, with new emphasis on religious education for children, promoting the Protestant Work Ethic.

• Geographical Spread: Successful in the Americas—Protestants in North America, Catholics in Central and South America; limited success in East Asia (except for the Philippines).