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Mehmed II
Ottoman sultan known for conquest of Constantinople in 1453.
Akbar the Great
Prominent Mughal emperor recognized for religious toleration and administrative reforms.
Roxelana
Powerful wife of Suleiman, influencing Ottoman politics from the harem.
Qing Dynasty
Last imperial dynasty of China, ruled by Manchu from 1644 until 1912.
Manchu
Ethnic group from Manchuria that established the Qing Dynasty over Han Chinese.
Li Chengdong
Han Chinese general notorious for leading massacres during Qing conquests.
Liu Liangzuo
Han Chinese defector responsible for large-scale massacres of Han civilians under Qing rule.
Louis XIV
French king embodying absolute monarchy, famously claimed, "I am the state."
Ivan IV
Russian tsar known as "Ivan the Terrible," notorious for tyranny and executing dissenters.
Ottoman Empire
Islamic empire notable for military prowess and relative religious tolerance.
timar
Land grant system used by Ottoman sultans to reward loyal soldiers and officials.
harem
Private space for a ruler’s wives and concubines, often influencing political affairs.
boyar
Russian nobility, landowning elite below the royal family in societal hierarchy.
nobility
European social class of wealthy landowners with inherited privileges and power.
serf
Agricultural laborer bound to land, offering little personal freedom, common in Russia.
peninsulares
Spanish-born individuals residing in the Americas, at the top of colonial social hierarchy.
criollo
Descendants of Europeans born in the Americas, below peninsulares in social rank.
castas
Mixed-race hierarchical categories in Latin America, defining social status based on ancestry.
mestizos
Individuals of mixed European and indigenous ancestry in colonial Latin America.
mulattos
Individuals of mixed European and African ancestry, positioned in the colonial caste system.
zambos
Individuals of mixed indigenous and African ancestry, part of colonial social hierarchy.
Barbary pirates
North African pirates engaging in maritime raiding and slave trading activities.
impressed
Forcing individuals into military or labor service, often against their will.
queues
Mandatory braided hairstyle imposed by Qing rulers on Han Chinese as a loyalty test.
Sephardic Jew
Jewish descendants from Spain, particularly post-expulsion in 1492.
Ashkenazi Jew
Jewish individuals primarily from Central and Eastern Europe, historically referred to as German
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