Unit 4 - Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates

Substances containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

C_x(H₂O)_y

Formula of carbohydrates

Glycogen

Carbohydrates is stored primarily as?

Liver and muscles

Where is glycogen stored?

Glyceraldehyde

Simplest sugar and smallest carbohydrate

Glyceraldehyde

Reference point when doing carbohydrate studies

Aldose

Terminal carbonyl group

Ketose

Middle carbonyl group

Haworth Projection

Represents compound in cyclic form

Fisher Projection

Projection where the aldehyde or ketone group is at the top

Glucose + fructose

Components of sucrose

Glucose + galactose

Components of lactose

Glucose + glucose

Components of maltose

Starch

Stored glucose for plants

D type

Hydroxyl of the chiral center is to the right

L type

Hydroxyl of the chiral center is to the left

Enantiomers

Non-superimposable mirror images of each other

D-glucose

Stereochemistry of glucose usually found in humans

Salivary amylase

Enzyme that degrades polysaccharide

Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Occurs when glucose is low to supply glucose in the body

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen into glucose

Gluconeogenesis

Creation of glucose from new sources

Keto-acidosis

Acidosis that decreases blood pH

Low carb, high fat

Keto diet

• Beta-hydroxybutyric acid (main product)

• Acetoacetic acid / acetoacetate

• Acetone

Ketone bodies byproducts from keto diet

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

Destruction of pancreatic beta cells of Isles of Langerhans that halts insulin production

Embden Meyerhof Pathway

Anaerobic glycolytic pathway

Pyruvate

In the Embden Meyerhof Pathway, glucose is broken down into?

2

Net ATP of Embden Meyerhof Pathway

Lactate

For RBCs, breakdown of glucose ends with pyruvate and then converted into what due to the absence of mitochondria?

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Other name of Hexose Monophosphate Stunt

6-phosphogluconate / 6-phosphogluconic acid

Hexose Monophosphate Stunt is a detour of glucose-6-phosphate from glycolysis into what?

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

Main enzyme in the Hexose Monophosphate Stunt

• NADPH

• Reduced glutathione

Products of Hexose Monophosphate Stunt

Glutathione

Prevents oxidation and denaturation of proteins and hemoglobin

Heinz bodies

Denatured hemoglobin

Heinz bodies

Only visible with supravital stains like new methylene blue

Bite cells

Heinz bodies are treated by splenic macrophages and creates what?

None

ATP production in Hexose Monophosphate Stunt?

Liver

Location of glycogenesis

Glycogenesis

Creation of glycogen from glucose

Glycolysis

Metabolism of glucose to pyruvate or lactate for production of energy

Gluconeogenesis

Formation of glucose-6-phosphate from noncarbohydrate sources

Glycogenesis

Conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage

Glycogenolysis

Breakdown of glycogen to glucose for use as energy

Lipolysis

Decomposition of fat forming ketone bodies

Lipogenesis

Conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids if there’s excessive carbohydrates

Pancreas

Where hormones are produced

Pancreatic amylase

Enzyme for the exocrine function of the pancreas for breakdown of starch

Isle of Langerhans

Endocrine function of pancreas

Increases

What insulin does to lipogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycolysis

Decreases

What insulin does to glycogenolysis

Increases

What glucagon does to gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis

Insulin

Produced by beta cells of Islets of Langerhans in pancreas

Insulin

Primary hormone responsible for uptake of glucose into the cell

Glucagon

Produced by alpha cells of Islets of Langerhans in pancreas

Glucagon

Released during stress and fasting states

Somatostatin

Produced by delta cells of Islets of Langerhans in pancreas

Somatostatin

Inhibits release of growth hormone

Somatostatin

Regulates insulin and glucagon

Epinephrine

Produced by adrenal medulla

Epinephrine

One of the catecholamines

Epinephrine

Released in time of stress

Cortisol

Produced by zona fasciculata of adrenal cortex by stimulation of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Zona fasciculata of adrenal cortex

Where cortisol is produced

Stimulation of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

How is cortisol produced

Cortisol

Stress hormone

Cortisol

A glucocorticoid

Thyroxine

Produced by thyroid gland

Thyroxine

Increases intestinal absorption of glucose

Growth hormone

Produced by anterior pituitary gland

Somatotropin

Other name of growth hormone

Increases

Growth hormone ___ in the afternoon

Epinephrine

Inhibits insulin secretion

Growth hormone

Decreases entry of glucose into cells