Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology: Organization, Homeostasis, and Anatomical Terms

Anatomy

The study of the structures that make up the body.

Physiology

The study of how body structures perform vital functions.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.

Negative Feedback

A process that counteracts a change in the body to restore balance.

Positive Feedback

A process that amplifies a change in the body, enhancing the original stimulus.

Integumentary System

Protects underlying organs; includes skin, hair, and nails.

Skeletal System

Provides structure and support; composed of bones.

Muscular System

Powers movement and locomotion; consists of muscles.

Nervous System

Sends, receives, and processes electrical signals; includes the brain and spinal cord.

Endocrine System

Regulates hormones through various glands.

Cardiovascular System

Transports oxygen, nutrients, and other materials; includes the heart and blood vessels.

Respiratory System

Responsible for gas exchange; includes the lungs.

Lymphoid System

Fights diseases; includes lymph vessels and nodes.

Digestive System

Absorbs nutrients; includes the stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas.

Urinary System

Filters blood; includes kidneys and bladder.

Reproductive System

Responsible for species perpetuation; includes gonads and genitalia.

Atom

The smallest stable unit of matter.

Ion

An electrically charged atom that has gained or lost electrons. They do not have the same number of electrons as protons

Enzymes

Proteins that act as catalysts, lowering the activation energy of reactions.

Organic Molecules

Typically composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Inorganic Molecules

Usually do not contain carbon as a structural backbone.

pH Scale

Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution; low pH is acidic, high pH is basic.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds with a 1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; serve as energy storage.

Lipids

Nonpolar molecules with a 1:2 carbon to hydrogen ratio; used for energy storage and insulation.

Nucleic Acids

Large organic molecules made up of nucleotides; include DNA and RNA.

Plasma Membrane

Physical isolation, Regulation of exchange with environment, Sensitivity to the environment, Structural support

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances across a cell membrane without energy.

Active Transport

Movement of substances that requires energy to cross a cell membrane.

Mitochondria

Organelles that produce ATP for the cell.

Golgi Apparatus

Packages enzymes and secretions for transport.

Microvilli

Projections that increase surface area for absorption or secretion.

Channel Proteins

Proteins that act as gates, allowing molecules to enter or exit the cell.

Levels of Organization

Molecular level, Cellular level, Tissue, Organ, Organ system, Organism

Head

Cephalic region

Neck

Cervical region

Chest

Thoracic region

Abdomen

Abdominal region

Pelvis

Pelvic region

Lower back

Lumbar region

Buttock

Gluteal region

Arm

Brachial region

Forearm

Antebrachial region

Hand

Manual region

Thigh

Femoral region

Leg

Crural region

Foot

Pedal region

A particular hormone, calcitonin, is released by the thyroid gland in response to increased levels of calcium ions in the blood. If the hormone acts through negative feedback, what effect will its release have on the amount of calcium in the blood?

It will decrease

What is an example of a feedback loop? Is your example positive or negative?

Eating is a feedback loop and it's negative. Going to the gym is also a feedback loop and is positive.

Example of negative feedback

Thermoregulation

Example of positive feedback

blood clotting

Anterior

The front; before

Posterior

The back; behind

Superior

Above

Inferior

Below

Medial

Toward the center of the body (longitudinal axis)

Lateral

Away from the center of the body (longitudinal axis)

Proximal

Toward an attached base

Distal

Away from an attached base

Superficial

Near the surface

Deep

Farther from the surface

Element

 substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances through physical or chemical means

Activation energy

 the energy required to start a reaction

When combining an acid and a base what will form?

water and a salt will form

water

an essential reactant in the chemical reaction of living systems, high heat capacity, excellent solvent

Why is water having a high heat capacity good

Your blood is going to stay liquid and stay stable, your blood doesn't freeze or boil in high or low temperatures

Monosaccharide

the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar molecule. They are the building blocks of more complex carbohydrates. Common examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Monosaccharides are characterized by their sweet taste and are soluble in water. They play crucial roles in energy production and metabolism in living organisms.

Disaccharide

A disaccharide is a type of carbohydrate formed by the combination of two monosaccharides through a glycosidic bond. Common examples include:

• Sucrose (glucose + fructose)

• Lactose (glucose + galactose)

• Maltose (glucose + glucose)

Disaccharides are broken down into their monosaccharide components during digestion.

Polysaccharide

• Definition: A polysaccharide is a carbohydrate composed of long chains of monosaccharide units bonded together.

• Examples:

  • Starch

  • Glycogen

  • Cellulose

• Functions:

  • Energy storage (starch, glycogen)

  • Structural support (cellulose in plant cell walls)

• Properties: Generally insoluble in water and can be branched or unbranched.

Fatty acids

Energy storage, can be saturated or unsaturated

Fats

Energy storage; insulation/protection, fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol molecule

Steroids

Hormones, large lipids composed of carbon rings

Phospholipids

Cell membranes, fatty acids connected to a glycerol with a phosphate group

Protein

Most abundant organic compounds in the human body. Amino acids combine to form peptides, Peptides combine to form polypeptides (proteins)

Nucleic Acid

large organic molecules made up of nucleotides DNA and RNA. There are five bases for nucleotides: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate is a source of energy for our bodies. Reactions turns ATP into ADP and releases energy

Cells

the building blocks of plants and animals

Phospholipid bilayer

a membrane lipid that serves as protection, has a Hydrophilic head and Hydrophobic tail. Like bonds with like

Receptor proteins

Receptor Proteins

Receptor proteins are specialized proteins located on cell membranes or within cells that bind to specific molecules (ligands) such as hormones, neurotransmitters, or drugs. They play crucial roles in signal transduction, allowing cells to communicate and respond to their environment. These proteins are essential for many biological processes, including growth, immune response, and homeostasis.

Carrier proteins

integral membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of specific substances across a cell membrane. Carrier proteins are crucial for the transport of ions, glucose, and amino acids, and can function via passive transport (facilitated diffusion) or active transport (requiring energy). Examples include glucose transporters and sodium-potassium pumps.

Anchoring proteins

proteins that attach to other proteins or structures within the cell, providing stability and maintaining the cell's shape. They play a crucial role in cell signaling and maintaining the organization of cellular components.

Recognition proteins

specialized molecules that play a crucial role in cellular communication and immune response. They are typically found on the surface of cells and help in identifying and binding to specific molecules, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, or pathogens. Examples include:

• Receptors: Bind to signaling molecules.

• Antigens: Trigger immune responses.

• Cell adhesion molecules: Facilitate cell-to-cell interactions.

These proteins are essential for processes like immune recognition, cell signaling, and tissue formation.

Impermeable

nothing can pass through

Freely permeable

anything can pass through

Selectively permeable (cell membrane)

certain substances can pass

Example of diffusion

Axe body spray: the spray is super strong until it diffuses and you can’t really smell it as much

Example of passive transport

Osmosis/diffusion

Example of active transport

Membrane proteins use ATP to transfer molecules from one side to another

Cytosol

intracellular fluid that contains nutrients, ions, and proteins

Cilia

slender extensions of the plasma membrane; help move particles

Nucleus

 contains DNA and enzymes

Mitosis

a process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells from a single parent cell. It consists of several stages:

1. Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; the nuclear envelope breaks down.

2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane.

3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles.

4. Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform around each set of chromosomes; the cell begins to divide.

Finally, cytokinesis occurs, splitting the cytoplasm and completing the cell division.

What is the difference between glucose and sucrose?

• Type:

  • Glucose: Monosaccharide (simple sugar)

  • Sucrose: Disaccharide (composed of glucose and fructose)

• Structure:

  • Glucose: Single sugar unit (C6H12O6)

  • Sucrose: Two sugar units linked (C12H22O11)

• Sources:

  • Glucose: Found in fruits, honey, and as a product of starch digestion

  • Sucrose: Commonly found in sugar cane, sugar beets, and many plants

• Sweetness:

  • Glucose: Less sweet than sucrose

  • Sucrose: Sweeter than glucose

endocytosis

a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell by engulfing them in a membrane. Endocytosis is crucial for nutrient uptake, immune response, and cellular signaling.

exocytosis

a cellular process in which substances are expelled from a cell. This occurs when vesicles containing the substances fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell. It is essential for processes such as neurotransmitter release and hormone secretion.