Unit 4 - Social Psychology & Personality

Conformity

Adjustment of one’s behavior or thinking to match a group standard

-Can be drive by desire to fit in

Normative Social Influence

When people conform to group behavior to be liked and accepted and to avoid rejection

Social Norms

An unwritten rule or expectation that guides behavior within social groups

Relative Deprivation

The perception that one is worse off than others to whom they compare themselves, which can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction, frustration, and resentment

Upward Social Comparison

Process of comparing oneself to someone perceived as superior

Downward Social Comparison

When an individual compares themselves to someone they perceive as worse off to feel better about their own situation

Informational Social Influence

When an individual conforms to the behavior of a group because they believe the group has the correct information, especially in ambiguous situations

Obedience

The act of following a direct command or order from a figure of authority

Social Facilitation

The tendency for individuals to perform a task better on simple or well-learned tasks when others are present, and worse on complex or new tasks

Group Polarization

A group’s prevailing opinion becomes more extreme after a discussion, compared to the initial views of the individual members

Groupthink

Desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal (assessment) of alternatives, leading to irrational or dysfunctional decisions

Attribution Theory

Explains how people explain the causes of behavior, categorizing them as either dispositional (internal), like personality, or situational (external), like circumstances

Dispositional Attributions

Explains a person’s behavior by crediting it to their internal, personal characteristics, such as personality traits, intelligence, or habits, rather than to external, situational factors

Situational Attributions

Tendency to explain a person’s behavior by pointing to external factors, such as the environment, social context, or circumstances

Explanatory Style

A person’s habitual way of explaining events, which can be either optimistic or pessimistic

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Tendency to view positive events as permanent and pervasive, while seeing negative events as temporary and specific

-Optimistic individuals attribute good things to internal, lasting factors, but attribute bad things to external temporary circumstances outside of their control

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Habitual way of explaining negative events by attributing them to permanent, pervasive, and personal factors, leading to feelings of helplessness and a higher risk of depression and anxiety

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to overemphasize personality-based, or dispositional factors, and underestimate situation based, or situational, factors when explaining the behaviors of others

Actor-Observer Bias

Tendency for individuals to attribute their own actions to external, situational factors, while attributing actions of others to their internal, personality traits

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal, personal factors (e.g. ability, effort) while attributing failures to external, situational factors (e.g. bad luck, unfair circumstances)

Internal Locus Of Control

The belief that individuals have control over their own actions, behaviors, and life outcomes, rather than believing they are determined by external forces like luck or fate

External Locus of Control

The belief that external forces like fate, luck, or other outside influences, rather than personal actions, determine life’s outcomes

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others, where an individual helps without expecting personal gain or reward

Social Responsibility Norm

A social rule that suggests individuals should help others who need assistance, even if there is no expectation of repayment

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people, often an oversimplifcation that ignores individual differences

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms ones preexisting beliefs or hypotheses

Belief Perseverance

Tendency to hold onto one’s initial beliefs even when confronted with evidence that contradicts them

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that makes the original belief come true

Prejudice

Preconceived, usually negative, attitude toward a group por its members, based on stereotypes rather than individual experience

Discrimination

Unjust treatment of individuals or groups based on prejudice

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious, automatic evaluations or feelings toward a person, group, or idea that can influence behavior without conscious awareness

Just-World Phenomenon

Congitive bias where people believe the world is fundamentally fair, and that individuals get what they deserve

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to perceive members of an out-group (a group one does not belong to) as more similar to each other than members of one’s own in group

In-Group Bias

The tendency to favor one’s own group over others

-Involves showing more positive attitudes and greater support for one’s own social group

Mere Exposure Effect

A psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for things simply due to repeated exposure

Ethnocentrism

Belief that one’s own ethnic or cultural group is superior, leading to the judgement of other cultures based on one’s own standards

Collectivism

A social and cultural orientation where individuals prioritize the needs of their group, family, community over their own personal goals

Multiculturalism

The idea that diverse cultures coexist within a society and are mutually appreciated

Superordinate Goals

A shared objective that requires cooperation between two or more individuals or groups to achieve, which helps to reduce conflict by overriding differences and promoting a sense of a single, larger group

Social Traps

A situation where individuals or groups pursue short-term goals that have negative long-term conequences for the group as a whole

Persuasion

The process of influencing attitudes and beliefs through communication

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory of attitude change proposing two routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route

Central Route of Persuasion

A method of changing attitudes that involves carefully considering the context, logic, and evidence of a message

Peripheral Route of Peruasion

A psychological concept where a person is influenced by factors other than the actual argumentation, such as a celebrity endorsement, the attractiveness of the speaker, or emotional signals

Halo Effect

A cognitive bias where a positive impression of a person, brand, or product influences your judgement of their other specific traits

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A compliance strategy where a person is more likely to agree to a larger request after they have already agreed to a smaller, initial request

-Works b/c first request creates a sense of commitment and consistency, making it likely that the individual will continue to say yes to subsequent larger requests

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A persuasion strategy where a person first makes a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be rejected. Followed by a second, smaller request, which is the one they actually wanted all along

-2nd request seems more reasonable than first, so its more likely to be accepted & the reciprocity makes people feel obligated to compromise

False Consensus Effect

A cognitive bias where people overestimate how much others agree with their own beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes

Cognitive Dissonance

A psychological discomfort experienced when simultaneously holding conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, often leading to an alteration in one of beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological principles and research methods to the workplace to improve productivity, select and promote employees, and enhance organizational culture and structure

Deindividualization

A psychological state where individuals lose their self-awareness and sense of individuality in group settings, often leading to impulsive and deviant behavior

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible for taking action or helping in a situation when others are present, leading to a decrease in the likelihood of intervention.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present; the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely any one individual is to help.

Instincts

Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in animals that are triggered by specific stimuli, driving them to act in predictable ways

-Humans do not usually exhibit instinctual behavior

Drive-Reduction Theory

Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal drives caused by physiological deficits, such as hunger or thirst, aiming to restore homeostatis

Ghrelin

A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite

Leptin

Hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger

Belongingness

Innate human desire to form and sustain close, meaningful relationships, which significantly drives behavior and affects emotional health

Arousal Theory

Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness, seeking to increase alertness when it is too low and decrease it when it is too high, to enhance performance and well-being

Yerkes Dodson Law

Performance increases with physiological or mental arousal (alertness), but only up to a point; when levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases

Sensation-Seeking Theory

Proposes that one’s motivation is driven by the need for varied, novel, and intense experiences

Adventure Seeking

A component of sensation-seeking theory, where individuals are motivated by the desire for new and challenging experiences, often involving physical activities and exploration

Disinhibition

Refers to the tendency to seek out social and experimental thrills by engaging in behaviors that are typically restrained by social norms and inhibitions

Boredom Susceptibility

Trait of having low tolerance for repetitive or dull situations, causing individuals to seek out stimulating and novel experiences

Incentive Theory

Behavior is motivated by external rewards and punishments - incentives - that are anticipated to result from actions

Self-Determination Theory

Humans have three innate psychological needs - autonomy, competence, and relatedness - that drive intrinsic motivation and personal growth

Intrinsic Motivation

The drive to engage in a behavior because it is internally rewarding and enjoyable in itself, not for external rewards

Extrinsic Motivation

Behavior driven by external rewards or punishments, rather than internal satisfaction

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

Proposes that we are motivated to resolve conflicts arising from choices. 3 types: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance

Approach-Approach Conflicts

Psychological conflict that arises from having to choose between two equally attractive options

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts

Decision-making scenario where an individual must choose between two or more undesirable options

Approach-Avoidance Conflicts

Psychological conflict where a single goal or situation has both positive and negative aspects, forcing a person to choose between them

Emotion

A complex response involving physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience

Elicitors

Events, Stimuli, or cues that trigger a specific emotional response

Arousal Comes Before Emotion

James-Lange Theory

-Emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events

1. External Stimulus

2. Physiological reaction

3. Emotion reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

The idea that a person’s facial expressions can influence their emotions

Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously

Cannon-Bard

-Suggests that the physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one does not cause the other

Arousal + Cognitive Label = Emotion

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

-The physiological arousal comes first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion

1. Stimulus

2. Physiological response

3. Cognitively interpreted and labeled which results in an emotion

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion

Barbara Fredrickson

-Positive emotions often lead to more flexible thinking, creative ideas, and social engagement

-Negative emotions can narrow focus and prepare a person to handle immediate dangers or problems (e.g. fight or flight)

Universal Emotions

Basic fundamental emotions that are recognized and expressed similarly across all cultures

-Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust

Display Rules

Cultural or social guidelines for how and when to express emotions

-Cultural norms that dictate whether to amplify, deamplify, neutralize, or mask an emotion depending on the situation and cultural context

Psychodynamic Theory

Focuses on how unconscious processes and past experiences, especially in childhood, shape personality and behavior

Preconscious Mind

Level of awareness that holds information not currently in your thoughts but can be easily retrieved into conscious awareness

Unconscious Mind

Part of the psyche containing thoughts, feelings, and memories outside of conscious awareness, which can influence behavior and emotions

Projective Tests

Personality assessments that use ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots or pictures, to reveal a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motives

Ego Defense Mechanism

Unconscious psychological strategies the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety, stress, and conflict by distorting reality

Denial

A defense mechanism where a person unconsciously refuses to accept or acknowledge a difficult reality, fact, or impulse to protect themselves from anxiety and emotional pain

Displacement

Defense mechanism where someone unconsciously redirects feelings from the original, often threatening source, to a substitute, less threatening target

Projection

A defense mechanism where individuals unconsciously attribute their own unacceptable feelings, impulses, or traits to others

Rationalization

A defense mechanism where a person creates a logical-sounding, but often false, explanation for their actions or feelings to make them seem more acceptable to themselves and others

Reaction Formation

A defense mechanism where a person unconsciously behaves in a way that is the opposite of their true feelings to avoid anxiety

Regression

A defense mechanism where someone reverts to an earlier stage of development under stress

Repression

Defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously blocks anxiety-producing thoughts, memories, or feelings from conscious awareness

Sublimation

A defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously channels unacceptable impulses, such as aggression or sexual urges, into socially acceptable and often productive activities like art, sports, or a career