Psych 210 - Chapters 5 and 6

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

habituation

decrease in response to stimulus after repeated exposure

classical conditioning

in which a neutral stimulus elicits a response after it is paired with the stimulus that naturally brings that response

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest

Unconditioned stimulus

naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned

Unconditioned response

is natural response that needs no training

Conditioned stimulus

a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.​ Brings about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.​

Conditioned response

a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus

Little Albert

Experiment done by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) which evoked conditioned fear, Proved that classical conditioning can lead to the development of phobias, PTSD, or positive experiences

PTSD is most prevalent among

foster kids

Extinction

occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears

Spontaneous recovery

the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.

Stimulus generalization

in which after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response

Stimulus discrimination

the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another

John Garcia

found that some organisms were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick.​ Learned taste aversion could even occur

Operant conditioning

in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response’s favorable or unfavorable consequences

Thorndike’s law of effect

responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

B. F. Skinner

developed the Skinner box: a chamber with a highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning with laboratory animals

Reinforcement

the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcer

any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again

Primary reinforcer

satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of previous experience

secondary reinforcer

becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer.

Positive reinforcer

a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response

Negative reinforcer

an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated

Punishment

a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again

Positive punishment

weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus

Negative punishment

weakens a response through the removal of something pleasant

Schedule of reinforcement

the pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior

Continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs

Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time.​

Partial reinforcement schedules maintain performance longer than do continuous reinforcement schedules before extinction occurs.

Fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made

Variable-ratio schedule

reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable

Fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed

Variable-interval schedule

the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed

Stimulus control training

behavior reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus but not in its absence

A discriminative stimulus

signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response

Shaping

the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

There was a farmer who thought he had taught his horse to speak

turns out it was just reinhorsement

Behavior modification

a technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

Cognitive learning theory

an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning

Latent Learning

learning in which a new behavior is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it

cognitive map

a mental representation of spatial locations and directions

observational learning

learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model. Demonstrated in an experiment by Albert Bandura

rational learning style

master material best through understanding the “big picture” about something

analytical learning style

you do best when you first analyze the component parts

Memory

the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information

Encoding

recording information in a form usable to memory

Storage

the maintenance of material saved in memory

Retrieval​

locating material and bringing it into awareness so that it can be used

Sensory memory

the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant

Iconic memory

reflects information from the visual system

Echoic memory

stores auditory information coming from the ears

Short-term memory

memory that holds information for 15–25 seconds. We can hold up to seven items, or chunks

Chunk ​

a group of separate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory

Rehearsal

the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory

Elaborative rehearsal

occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion

Mnemonics

strategies for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered

Working memory

a memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information

Long-term memory

stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve. Almost unlimited capacity

Evidence for long-term memory

People with certain kinds of brain damage may have poor memory performance + results of laboratory memory studies

Primacy effect

best remembered are items that come early

Recency effect

best remembered are items presented late

Declarative memory

refers to factual information; it is sometimes called explicit memory, and is further subdivided into:​

Semantic memory and Episodic memory

procedural memory

refers to memory for skills and habits

Semantic memory

for general knowledge

Episodic memory

for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context

Semantic networks

mental representations of clusters of interconnected information

spreading activation

Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories

Engram

the physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory

Hippocampus

a part of the brain’s limbic system, it plays a central role in the consolidation of memories

Amygdala

a part of the brain’s limbic system, it is involved with memories involving emotion

Long-term potentiation

when certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned

Consolidation

when memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS)

stimulates the brain and in turn has improved memory in experimental settings

Retrieval cues

stimuli that allow us to more easily recall information that is in long-term memory

Recall

memory task in which specific information must be retrieved

Recognition

memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives

Levels-of-processing theory

a theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed.​ More processing = easier to recall

• shallow levels = information is processed merely in terms of its physical and sensory aspects.​

• deepest level of processing = information is analyzed in terms of its meaning.​

Explicit memory

intentional or conscious recollection of information

Implicit memory

memories of which people are not consciously aware

Priming

occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information

Flashbulbs memories

memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery

Constructive processes

processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events

Schemas

organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled

Eyewitness identification of suspects, as well as memory of other details of crimes

is subject to significant errors. Even more so with children

Repressed memories

apparent recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind pushed them into the unconscious

(Freud)

False memories

may be at work when people embrace so-called “fake news.”​

Autobiographical memory

our recollection of our own life experiences. Particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others.

Forgetting

helps keep unwanted information from interfering with retrieving information that is wanted, permits us to form general impressions and recollections, forces our brain to relearn and remember better in the future

Hermann Ebbinghaus

found that the most rapid forgetting occurs in the first 9 hours after exposure to new material. However, the rate of forgetting then slows down and declines very little even after many days have passed

why we forget

failure of encoding., we may not have paid attention in the first place, or when material has been encoded failures may be cases of decay, interference, or cue-dependent forgetting.​

Decay

the loss of information through its nonuse

Interference

information in memory disrupts the recall of other information

Cue-dependent forgetting

occurs when a person has insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information in memory

Proactive interference​

information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material and progresses in time

Retroactive interference

material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier and retrogresses in time

Alzheimer’s disease

a progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

Amnesia

memory loss without other mental difficulties

Retrograde amnesia​

memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events

Anterograde amnesia

memory is lost for events that follow an injury