Third Assessment Poli Theory

A theme common to Machiavelli’s main works involves an indifference to using _______

for political ends.

immorality

Some argue that Machiavelli relies upon a science of politics because he uses examples of

_____. However, more times than not, he relies on assumptions derived from _________

rather than scientific positivism. Additionally, his real-world evidence is _________ and

________.

successful rulers and states, common sense, highly selective, and unsystematic

He argues that political theory should be derived from _________ rather than ideals or

principled beliefs.

reality

Does Machiavelli believe politics should help people become good and overcome our

Weaknesses?

No

People tend to be

fickle_____, ___wicked______, and ___self-interested_____.

The ‘supreme good’ is only understood in terms of

power___ and ___glory______.

What happens when leaders operate under the assumption that being good will be

returned by others being good? What should rulers do for the interests of the state?

What is the morality of the ruler? How does this view align with norms of Christian

conduct? Why shouldn’t rulers follow Christianity or any other group morality? Is there any

value for religion?

Rulers who operate under the assumption that goodness will be returned delude themselves and jeopardize states, exhaust whatever means are necessary for the interests of the state. Morality of the ruler: ends justifies the means. Christian morality is otherworldly and distracts from this world it preaches and ethics of weakness. Religion is just a tool to control or inspire people. 

What is the consequence of human egoism? How can law help? 

 Leads to an adversarial social world. To avoid chaos force of law must restrain our behavior and coerce into obedience 

The legitimacy of the state/ruler rests upon _________ and _________.

•  the ability to coerce the citizenry 

• the ability to ward off threats from other status

The _________ and _________ of the state requires popular support.

Success and stability

_________ helps direct the energies of the people to supporting the state. What is a key tool

for this?

Civic Virtue, Law is a key tool in cultivating civic virtue and national character 

What is meant by an “economy of violence”?

Economy of violence is consists of threats of violence to keep population under control. 

Machiavelli promotes an ethic of __

prudence and restraint ____.

Some believe Machiavelli sacrifices virtue on the altar of _

instrumental rationality

What does doing the right thing depend upon according to Machiavelli?

circumstances

What does it mean to be flexible according to Machiavelli?

must be able and willing to perform both good and bad acts 

What was Hobbes’ aim in writing Leviathan?

When people cannot trust each other, the solution is to take the power to decide outcomes away from them and give it to the Leviathan, who also has the power to enforce and coerce. Tell people why they need the government. 

What term do we use for a method that starts with simple questions and builds upon what

has been proven? This technique is _________ rather than empirical, which means it can be

true even if we do not observe it ourselves. What happens when we make bad

Assumptions?

Syllogism. Deductive rather than empirical; make bad assumptions, then theory collapses. 

What are the two basic types of sensation? How does this help us understand how people

move/behave?

desire and aversion, People move on the basis of these feelings: desire makes us move to the things we want; aversion moves us away from what we don't want

This is a fundamental _________ theory of human behavior.

psychological

The body is programmed to do what? This instinct is _________, _________, and _________. It

is also the highest _________.

preserve itself, universal pervasive and never ending, moral good

In the state of nature, humans are constantly _________ with each other. Natural _________

makes it impossible to create order.

Compete, equality

What is the dominant state of social relations in nature? Is this a rational outcome? Why?

This also makes the state of nature _________, where we exchange a higher quality of life for

continuous fear and _________.

The dominant state is war. It is the only rational outcome. This makes the state of nature sub-optimal, where we exchange for fear and danger of violent death. 

Reason helps us _________ and find better ways to obtain the things we desire. It also helps

us understand the _________, which provide guidance about _________.

Regulate our actions, helps us understand laws of nature, which guide how to live our lives and preserve ourselves

_________ is the optimal condition for survival. This requires _________ in each other. Is this

likely in the state of nature?

Laws of nature promote peace, require mutual confidence, This is not likely because of our state of absolute freedom in the state of nature. 

When people cannot trust each other, what is the solution?

Take the power to decide outcomes away from them and give it to the Leviathan, who also has the power to enforce and coerce. 

Can the Leviathan be any form of government? What is most important rather than form?

_________ makes people sociable and obedient.

It can be a form that involves a social contract that transfers power to the Leviathan. Fear of punishment does this. 

What is life under the Leviathan like? Are we better off if we surrender complete freedom to

do whatever we want?

A qualitative improvement from the state of nature because we no longer sacrifice industry culture, arts, etc…just to survive. Surrendering complete freedom also opens up opportunities to pursue interests that do not conflict with others 

Does Hobbes believe a Leviathan is a permanent solution? What is the indicator that the

Leviathan has failed?

Governments are not permanent, they decay due to internal and external forces. Social contract is broken when leviathan can no longer enforce its will and secure peace. 

We tend to like the idea of absolute freedom and equality. What is Hobbes’ advice to the

contrary?

Suboptimal existence in state of nature 

What are the two critical questions for Contract Theory?

Why sacrifice freedom to live under a government? What form of government should we adopt?

The laws of nature endow us with rights we seek to enjoy. These are: _________, _________,

_________, and _________.

life, liberty, happiness and property

According to Locke, _________ is the dominant condition of the state of nature.

Peace

What are the three roles of someone in the state of nature?

• Executors of the laws of nature

• The ultimate interpreters of our rights 

• Legitimate punishers of those who violate the laws of nature 

What are the two consequences of bias with the enforcement of the laws of nature? At

worst, people find themselves _________. At best, they just suffer from _________. These

also figure prominently in Locke’s logic of government.

At worst people find themselves at war with one another and At best people suffer inconveniences which distract them from fully enjoying their natural rights

Does Locke believe government should have extensive powers? Why or why not?

The government does not need extensive powers b/c people are generally able to enjoy their rights in the state of nature. 

Locke’s theory of property helps us better appreciate his logic of government in two ways.

What are they?

Government is something we want bc it enhances the enjoyment of our natural right to property. Property is part of the natural order bc it promotes self-preservation and enjoyment of rights

Does Locke believe we are able to be all that we can be in the state of nature?

Reason helps us see that nature can be improved upon through government and improving things is in our DNA.  Govt unleashes human industriousness through a system of clearly defined property rights 

The government has three responsibilities. These are: _________ best practices; _________

who set aside reason, violate natural law, and erode the social fabric; and, ensure that

_________ is cultivated in the youth.

• Legislate best practices 

• Punish transgressors who erode social fabric

• Ensure that reason is cultivated in the youth 

When can people legitimately invoke the right to resist? Is the right to resist meant to be

Destabilizing?

When the government fails people may invoke a right to resist as in nature. This right ideally works in favor of stability as a check against the abuse of power 

People need little help from government thanks to _________ and _________.

reason and enlightened self-interest

Does Locke believe government needs to be involved in our lives always in the same way

and to the same degree?

When people are not reasonable the government should cultivate their reason and then recede into the background 

Mill and other later liberals worried that a focus on limited government did not fully

account for whether people could _________.

Enjoy their rights without interference. 

What is the primary objective of Bentham’s Philosophical Radicalism?

Increase the share of political freedom enjoyed by the citizenry

What is the GHP and how is it supposed to guide government actions? What is the

shortcoming of GHP?

Greatest Happiness Principle (GHP): the most moral actions bring the greatest happiness to the greatest number, Purpose of govt = satisfaction of human needs but the shortcoming is that could result in people being excluded or given less happiness

Mill argued that societal interference can make government ineffective. Therefore, a liberal government requires _________.

requires a liberal society, first and foremost 

Freedom is a function of _________. How does this affect the view of freedom as meaning

the license to do whatever we want?

Moral character: Individuals must cultivate their moral agency to be free. It affects it as it changes the meaning to be the ability to cultivate their moral agency. 

A free society promotes _________, _________, and _________.

human dignity, individual integrity and self-development. 

How does someone cultivate their moral agency?

We must have vigorous and earnest challenge our beliefs leading to refinement of moral truths over time 

What are three components of our “region of human liberty”? Explain what they mean.

People can learn truths through _________ and _________.

• An inward domain of consciousness  

• Liberty of tastes and pursuits (likes goals drives)

• Freedom of combination among individuals (collaboration)

thru discussion and experience 

How does liberty enhance the well-being of humankind?

enables us to develop our individuality and then contribute to the best version of ourselves 

What is the impact of conformity?

Conformity suppresses individuality

If social pressures are unavoidable, what then can someone do to resist social tyranny?

Mill believes _________ is essential to progress.

People must scrutinize these influences and decide what makes them really happy and fulfilled, Diversity

Define the harm principle. It is better at justifying _________.

Harm principle entails that society should only interfere with an individual's activities if they are likely to produce definite harm to others. Self-restraint. 

Why does Mill believe society has a flawed view of women?

Any “natural” or “historical” argument in favor of the subjugation of women is flawed and does not reflect their genuine abilities and achievements. 

Subjugating women contradicts our shared interest in _________. This interest should be a

force for social _________.

Individual well-being and change 

_________ is an individual and social good. Try to explain why.

A liberal state should cultivate individuality by promoting _________ liberty

Liberty, positive

What has been caused by science and the arts?

They have led to erosion of morality 

_________ leads to conflict, disappointment, and misery.

Alienation

What will help someone achieve ‘true enlightenment’?

Faith feelings and will

In phase one of his political theory, Rousseau worked on his social _________. In phase

two, he offered a _________ to existing political theory.

Criticism drawing out the theme of alienation, a systematic response ( his contrary philosophy)

What school of political theory influenced him and how?

Greek PT in two respects 1 obedience is a matter of duty 2 the community is the hub of morality

What was his objection to prior theories’ use of the ‘state of nature’ and the ‘natural

human’? He used these constructs, too, but was honest about his intentions. He admitted

that these constructs were _________.

The state of nature and natural human only support writers conclusions - no independent validity, they are imaginary 

What does egoism reflect? Is egoism ‘natural’?

reflect social values: no it is not

According to his Discourse on Inequality, what do we rely upon when interacting with other

people? What are ‘natural’ humans inclined toward? Are people threats or competitors?

Feelings, compassion and goodness, no 

The noble savage is _________, _________, and _________ rather than reason. The noble

savage’s needs and desires are _________. The natural human also tends toward a

_________ existence that is also _________.

Rugged independent and move by spontaneous urges,  easily met by acting alone, solitary existence happy 

Rousseau argues that self-love and _________ are our two key social instincts. Can you

explain how self-love is a ‘social’ instinct?

Pity, Self love is a social instinct because it is a desire for recognition from others and relies on comparison. 

What does Rousseau think about Hobbes’ political theory? Have we benefited from

modernity or leaving the state of nature?

Hobbes has it wrong. People are naturally compassionate so there is no fear of each other - no need for leviathan. No bc It has not secured human fulfillment or perfection through reason science and society

What is the tragedy of human development, after people start seeing the benefits of

cooperation? What is the consequence of being able to achieve greater goals? Does

reason help things? What’s the moral of the story?

We become willing agents of our descent into unhappiness and alienation . Human nature changes, leading to problems within and between people that are increasingly worsening. Reason doesn't help,progress has brought us further from natural goodness. 

What is wrong with liberal theory? The liberal human is an _________ human.

What are the two answers to Rousseau’s ‘dual conundrum’? If society is to be a moral force in human life, how can it materialize from a perverted society and If government is the manifestation of society what recourse can political theory offer?

ignores economic inequality, unequal human, simplify and reform society human nature can be changed for the better using the noble savage as a north star , government  can promote society shared interests and moral standards 

What is the general will? What is the consequence of adopting/living according to the

general will? What is permissible if people do not conform to the general will?

Political will of the community aimed at the good of the whole community, liberates the individual to pursue interests without interference, abridgement of freedom and equality such a through punishment or majority rule 

What are the two obstacles to implementing the general will and social reforms? What is

the maxim about societies in need of reform versus societies that are willing to accept

Reform?

Society generally resistant to change…A society must be fresh, vigours , and without deeply held custom if it is to become truly free . Societies in need of reform are less likely to accept it; societies willing to accept reform likely do not require it

What is Rousseau evidently ‘better’ at: criticism or theory?

Rousseau is radical but his criticism and theory struggles to achieve practical relevance