Front: Mormon settlements in Utah (1847)
Back: The migration of Mormons to Utah, led by Brigham Young, to escape religious persecution and establish a community based on their beliefs.

Front: California gold rush (1848)
Back: A massive migration to California following the discovery of gold, leading to significant economic growth and the state's rapid population increase.

Front: Chinese immigration
Back: Large-scale immigration of Chinese workers, particularly during the 19th century, driven by economic opportunities like gold mining and railroad construction.

Front: Comstock Lode - silver mining in Nevada (1859)
Back: The first major discovery of silver ore in the U.S., leading to a mining boom in Nevada.

Front: Pike’s Peak gold rush (1858-1861)
Back: A gold rush that brought thousands of settlers to the Colorado Territory, stimulating economic and population growth.

Front: Manifest Destiny
Back: The belief that the United States was destined to expand westward across the continent, justified by cultural and political ideals.

Front: Election of 1844
Back: Presidential election where James K. Polk defeated Henry Clay, campaigning on expansionist policies like the annexation of Texas and Oregon.

Front: Slidell Mission (1845)
Back: An unsuccessful U.S. diplomatic mission to purchase California and resolve border disputes with Mexico before the Mexican-American War.

Front: U.S. annexation of Texas (1845)
Back: The formal incorporation of Texas into the United States, which heightened tensions with Mexico and led to the Mexican-American War.

Front: Bear Flag Revolt (1846)
Back: A short-lived rebellion by American settlers in California against Mexican rule, leading to the U.S. claiming California.

Front: Oregon Boundary Treaty (1846)
Back: Agreement between the U.S. and Britain setting the 49th parallel as the border between the U.S. and Canada in the Oregon Territory.

Front: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
Back: Ended the Mexican-American War; Mexico ceded California and much of the Southwest to the U.S., solidifying U.S. territorial expansion.

Front: Gadsden Purchase (1853)
Back: The U.S. purchased land from Mexico to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad.

Front: Pony Express (1860-1861)
Back: A mail service using horseback riders that connected the eastern U.S. with California, improving communication across the country.

Front: Wilmot Proviso (1846)
Back: A proposed law to ban slavery in territories acquired from Mexico; it heightened sectional tensions but failed to pass.

Front: Lincoln’s Spot Resolutions (1846)
Back: Abraham Lincoln's demand for President Polk to specify the exact location where American blood was shed, questioning the justification for the Mexican-American War.

Front: Free Soil Party (1848)
Back: A political party opposing the expansion of slavery into western territories, emphasizing "free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men."

Front: Civil Disobedience by Henry David Thoreau (1849)
Back: An essay advocating for nonviolent resistance to unjust laws, inspired by Thoreau's opposition to the Mexican-American War.

Front: Popular Sovereignty
Back: The idea that settlers in a territory should decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.

Front: Ostend Manifesto (1854)
Back: A controversial document suggesting the U.S. should purchase or seize Cuba from Spain, criticized for its pro-slavery implications.

Front: Pacific Railway Act (1862)
Back: Legislation providing federal support for the construction of the first transcontinental railroad.

Front: Homestead Act (1862)
Back: Allowed citizens to claim 160 acres of public land, encouraging westward settlement and agricultural development.

Front: Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)
Back: Provided land for states to establish colleges focused on agriculture and the mechanical arts, boosting higher education.

Front: Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad (1869)
Back: Marked the completion of the first transcontinental railroad, linking the east and west coasts and transforming transportation and commerce.

Front: Clipper Ships
Back: Fast sailing ships used in the mid-19th century, especially for trade routes to Asia and California.

Front: Commodore Matthew Perry’s Expedition to Japan
Back: Perry's 1853-1854 mission opened Japan to trade with the U.S., ending its period of isolation.

Front: Missionaries
Back: Individuals who spread Christianity, often in foreign territories, contributing to cultural exchange and Western influence.

Front: Irish Potato Famine
Back: A mid-19th-century famine in Ireland that caused mass starvation and immigration, particularly to the U.S.

Front: Parochial Schools
Back: Private religious schools, often established by Catholic immigrants to preserve their faith and culture.

Front: Know-Nothings
Back: A political movement opposing immigration and Catholic influence, associated with the American Party.

Front: American Party
Back: A political party in the mid-19th century advocating for nativist policies and restrictions on immigrants.

Front: Mariano Vallejo
Back: A prominent Californio who supported U.S. annexation of California, despite losing much of his land and influence.

Front: Sand Creek Massacre
Back: A brutal 1864 attack by Colorado militia on a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho village, killing many women and children.

Front: Battle of Little Bighorn
Back: An 1876 conflict where Lakota and Cheyenne warriors, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, defeated Custer’s U.S. forces.Front: Bessemer Process
Back: A method developed in the 1850s for mass-producing steel efficiently and inexpensively, revolutionizing industrialization.

Front: Liberty Party
Back: A minor political party in the 1840s that advocated for the abolition of slavery through political and legal means.

Front: Underground Railroad
Back: A network of secret routes and safe houses used to help enslaved people escape to free states and Canada.

Front: Harriet Tubman
Back: An escaped slave and key conductor on the Underground Railroad, she led hundreds of slaves to freedom.

Front: Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852)
Back: A novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that exposed the horrors of slavery, intensifying sectional tensions and abolitionist sentiment.

Front: Harper’s Ferry (1859)
Back: A raid led by abolitionist John Brown to seize a federal arsenal and incite a slave rebellion, ultimately failing but increasing tensions before the Civil War.

Front: John C. Calhoun
Back: A prominent Southern politician who defended slavery as a "positive good" and championed states' rights.

Front: “Positive Good” Thesis
Back: John C. Calhoun's argument that slavery was beneficial for both enslaved people and slaveholders, justifying its continuation.

Front: Minstrel Shows
Back: A form of 19th-century entertainment featuring white performers in blackface, perpetuating racist stereotypes.

Front: Compromise of 1850
Back: A series of laws addressing slavery and territorial expansion, including the Fugitive Slave Act and California’s admission as a free state.

Front: Fugitive Slave Law
Back: Part of the Compromise of 1850, this law required citizens to assist in the capture of escaped slaves and penalized those who helped them.

Front: Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
Back: Allowed territories to decide the issue of slavery through popular sovereignty, leading to violence in “Bleeding Kansas.”

Front: Bleeding Kansas
Back: A series of violent confrontations in Kansas between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers following the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Front: Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
Back: Supreme Court decision ruling that African Americans were not citizens and that Congress could not prohibit slavery in territories.

Front: Freeport Doctrine
Back: Stephen Douglas's argument that territories could effectively exclude slavery by failing to adopt laws to protect it, despite the Dred Scott decision.

Front: Republican Party (1854)
Back: Founded as an anti-slavery party, it opposed the expansion of slavery into western territories and later led the Union during the Civil War.

Front: Lincoln-Douglas Debates
Back: A series of debates in 1858 focusing on slavery and its expansion, boosting Lincoln’s national profile.

Front: Crittenden Compromise (1860)
Back: A last-ditch effort to prevent secession by protecting slavery in Southern territories, ultimately rejected by both sides.

Front: Southern Secession
Back: The withdrawal of Southern states from the Union following Lincoln’s election, leading to the formation of the Confederacy.

Front: Confederate States of America
Back: A coalition of seceded Southern states led by Jefferson Davis, fighting to preserve slavery and states’ rights.

Front: Fort Sumter (1861)
Back: The site of the first battle of the Civil War, where Confederate forces fired on a Union fort in South Carolina.

Front: Lincoln’s Suspension of Habeas Corpus
Back: During the Civil War, Lincoln suspended the constitutional right to a trial to suppress dissent and maintain public order.

Front: Conscription Act
Back: A law enacted during the Civil War requiring men to serve in the military, leading to opposition and draft riots.

Front: Copperheads
Back: Northern Democrats who opposed the Civil War and advocated for an immediate peace settlement with the Confederacy.

Front: Draft Riots
Back: Violent protests in 1863, particularly in New York City, against the Civil War draft, fueled by class and racial tensions.

Front: Trent Affair
Back: A diplomatic incident during the Civil War where Union forces seized Confederate diplomats from a British ship, nearly causing war with Britain.

Front: Contraband
Back: A term used during the Civil War for escaped slaves who sought refuge with Union forces, often employed in support roles.

Front: Battle of Antietam
Back: A major Civil War battle in 1862, it was the bloodiest single-day battle in U.S. history and led to the Emancipation Proclamation.

Front: Emancipation Proclamation
Back: Issued by Lincoln in 1863, it declared freedom for slaves in Confederate-held territories, shifting the war’s focus to ending slavery.Front: Massachusetts 54th
Back: One of the first African American regiments in the Civil War, known for their bravery in the assault on Fort Wagner.

Front: Anaconda Plan
Back: The Union's strategy during the Civil War to blockade Southern ports and control the Mississippi River, strangling the Confederacy economically.

Front: First Battle of Bull Run (1861)
Back: The first major battle of the Civil War, ending in a Confederate victory and shattering the North's hope of a quick war.

Front: Battle of Gettysburg (1863)
Back: A turning point in the Civil War, this Union victory halted Lee’s invasion of the North.

Front: Battle of Vicksburg (1863)
Back: A key Union victory that gave the North control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two.

Front: Sherman’s March to the Sea (1864)
Back: A devastating Union campaign through Georgia led by General Sherman, aimed at destroying Confederate resources and morale.

Front: Appomattox Court House (1865)
Back: The site where General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant, effectively ending the Civil War.

Front: 13th Amendment
Back: Abolished slavery in the United States, ratified in 1865.

Front: 14th Amendment
Back: Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guaranteed equal protection under the law.

Front: 15th Amendment
Back: Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Front: National Women’s Suffrage Association (1869)
Back: Founded by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, advocating for a constitutional amendment for women's voting rights.

Front: American Women’s Suffrage Association (1869)
Back: Founded by Lucy Stone and others, it supported a state-by-state approach to achieving women's suffrage.

Front: Radical Republicans
Back: A faction of the Republican Party during Reconstruction that sought to ensure civil rights for freedmen and harsh policies for the South.

Front: Thaddeus Stevens
Back: A leader of the Radical Republicans, he championed civil rights and land redistribution for freed African Americans.

Front: Charles Sumner
Back: A Radical Republican senator known for his advocacy for abolition and civil rights, as well as his caning by Preston Brooks.

Front: Freedmen’s Bureau
Back: Established in 1865 to aid freed slaves and poor whites in the South with education, employment, and housing.

Front: Black Codes
Back: Laws passed in Southern states during Reconstruction to restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans.

Front: Tenure of Office Act (1867)
Back: A law restricting the president's ability to remove certain officeholders, leading to Andrew Johnson’s impeachment when he violated it.

Front: Andrew Johnson’s Impeachment
Back: The first impeachment of a U.S. president, stemming from Johnson’s violation of the Tenure of Office Act.

Front: Congressional (Military) Reconstruction
Back: Reconstruction plan dividing the South into military districts to enforce laws and protect freedmen's rights.

Front: Carpetbaggers
Back: Northerners who moved to the South during Reconstruction, often accused of exploiting the region for personal gain.

Front: Scalawags
Back: Southern whites who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party, often viewed as traitors by other Southerners.

Front: Senator Hiram Revels
Back: The first African American to serve in the U.S. Senate, representing Mississippi during Reconstruction.

Front: Senator Blanche K. Bruce
Back: The second African American senator, also from Mississippi, who advocated for civil rights during Reconstruction.

Front: Representative Robert Smalls
Back: An African American politician and former slave who became a U.S. Congressman during Reconstruction.

Front: Civil Rights Act of 1875
Back: A law guaranteeing African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations and jury service, later struck down by the Supreme Court.

Front: Redeemers
Back: Southern Democrats who sought to end Reconstruction and restore pre-Civil War social order, often through violence and intimidation.

Front: Sharecropping
Back: A system where freedmen and poor whites rented land from landowners in exchange for a share of the crops, often trapping them in debt.

Front: Crop-Lien System
Back: A credit system used by sharecroppers and tenant farmers that often led to debt and poverty.

Front: Ku Klux Klan
Back: A white supremacist organization that used terror and violence to suppress African Americans and Republicans during Reconstruction.

Front: Slaughterhouse Cases (1873)
Back: Supreme Court cases that weakened the protections of the 14th Amendment by limiting its application to federal, not state, rights.

Front: Compromise of 1877
Back: The deal that resolved the 1876 presidential election, leading to the withdrawal of federal troops from the South and the end of Reconstruction.

Front: Literacy Tests
Back: Exams used in the South to disenfranchise African American voters by requiring literacy or interpretation of laws to vote.

Front: Grandfather Clause
Back: A law allowing individuals to vote only if their ancestors had voting rights before the Civil War, disenfranchising African Americans.

Front: Jim Crow Laws
Back: Laws enforcing racial segregation in the South after Reconstruction.

Front: Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Back: Supreme Court decision upholding segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, legitimizing Jim Crow laws.