Ch 8 Language and Thought

Language

Turning Thoughts into Words

Properties of language

Symbolic, Semantic, Generative, Structured

Phonemes

Smallest speech units; 100 possible, English - about 40

Morphemes

Smallest unit of meaning; 50,000 in English including root words, prefixes, suffixes

Semantics

Meaning of words and word combinations

Syntax

A system of rules for arranging words into sentences; different rules for different languages

Pragmatics

The practical aspects of language

Pre-vocal learning

Occurs at 2-4 months; initial vocalizations similar across languages including crying, cooing, babbling

Babbling

Begins at 6 months; sounds start to resemble surrounding language

First word

Typically occurs at 1 year; similar cross-culturally with words for parents

Vocabulary spurt

Occurs at 18-24 months; characterized by fast mapping, over- and under-extensions

Telegraphic speech

Combining words at the end of the second year

Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)

A measure of linguistic productivity in children

Complex ideas

Developed by the end of the third year, including plural and past tense

Over-regularization

Common in language development where irregular forms are treated as regular

Bilingualism

Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined vocabularies average; higher cognitive scores for middle-class bilingual subjects

Language processing speed

Slight disadvantage in bilingual individuals

Executive control

Developed earlier in bilingual individuals, allowing for more efficient task juggling

Animal Language Development

Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees can develop language; vocal apparatus issues noted

American Sign Language

A form of communication using hand signs

Washoe

A chimpanzee with a 160-word vocabulary

Kanzi

A bonobo chimpanzee known for understanding symbols and receptive language

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

A theory proposed by Chomsky for learning the rules of language

Linguistic relativity

The concept that language influences thought

Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky and Luria conducted research on the development of cognition.

Concept

Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people.

Prototype

The best representation of a concept.

Proposition

A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea.

Cognitive schemas

Integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.

Mental images

Mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents (occur in most sensory modalities).

Ill-defined problems

Barriers to effective problem solving include irrelevant information, functional fixedness, mental set, and unnecessary constraints.

Problem space

The conceptual framework within which a problem is defined and solved.

Algorithms

Systematic trial-and-error methods that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Shortcuts in problem-solving that do not guarantee a solution.

Forming sub-goals

Breaking down a problem into smaller, manageable parts to facilitate solution.

Searching for analogies

Using similarities to solve a problem based on previously solved problems.

Changing the representation of a problem

Altering how a problem is viewed to find a solution.

Taking a break: incubation

Allowing time away from a problem to facilitate insight and solution.

Overestimating the Improbable

The common bias to exaggerate the probability of rare events, such as getting in a plane crash.

Affect heuristic

The tendency to consult one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively.

Availability heuristic

The tendency to judge the probability of an event by how easily examples come to mind.

Framing

The way choices are presented affects decision-making, particularly regarding risk.

Fairness Bias

A sense of fairness often takes precedence over rational self-interest in economic choices.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to overestimate one's ability to have predicted an event after knowing the outcome.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out or pay attention to information that confirms one's own beliefs.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence Effect

The tendency to place too much faith in one's estimates, beliefs, and decisions.