Psychological Foundations

(week 2)

Psychology

Psychology

the scientific study of the mind and behavior

scientific theory

a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time

 empirical method 

based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.

When psychology got accepted as its own discipline

the late 1800s

What kind of science is psychology

philosophical, biological, social

Psyche

soul

Structuralism

one of the earliest schools of psychology, focused on understanding the conscious experience through introspection. It was introduced by Wilhelm Wundt and built upon by his student, Edward Titchener

introspection

a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible

Wundt’s version of introspection

used only very specific experimental conditions in which an external stimulus was designed to produce a scientifically observable (repeatable) experience of the mind

• the use of “trained” or practiced observers, who could immediately observe and report a reaction

• the use of repeatable stimuli that always produced the same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect and thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction

put in place to eliminate “interpretation” in the reporting of internal experiences and to counter the argument that there is no way to know that an individual is observing their mind or consciousness accurately, since it cannot be seen by any other person

voluntarism

people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment if they were participating

Edward Titchener

built upon Wundt’s ideas to develop the idea concept of structuralism

Structuralism

focused on the contents of mental processes rather than their function

William James

the first American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate

• partially believed in introspection but also relied on more objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and physiology

functionalism

early school of psychology; the study of the function of behavior in the world

• it focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment

• more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts

Psychoanalytic theory

focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences (dominated clinical psychology for several decades)

similar to psychodynamic theory, but that one applies to a broader field of study based off of Freud’s and his followers theories

Freud’s structural model of personality

three parts—the id, the ego, and the superego

The Id

unconscious part that is the cauldron of raw drives, such as for sex or aggression

ego

has conscious and unconscious elements, is the rational and reasonable part of personality. Maintains contact with the outside world to keep the individual in touch with society by mediating between the conflicting tendencies of the id and the superego. If it cannot do this, imbalance is believed to occur in the form of psychological distress.

superego

has conscious and unconscious elements; is a person’s conscience, which develops early in life and is learned from parents, teachers, and others

Psychosexual Theory of Development

five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

takeaway: personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood

erogenous zone

parts of the body where children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused (according to Freud)

psychoanalysis

the patient talking about their experiences and selves

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt means “whole”; the whole is other than a sum of its parts (Koffka)

conditioned reflex/classical conditioning

an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus (discovered by Ian Pavlov)

John B. Watson

thought that the study of consciousness was flawed; believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, so he preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control

behaviorism

observing and controlling behavior; largely responsible for establishing psychology as a scientific discipline through its objective methods and especially experimentation

B. F. Skinner

behaviorist who concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences (reinforcement and punishment/ operant conditioning)

Skinner box

chamber that isolates the subject and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button. When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box is able to deliver a positive reinforcement of the behavior (such as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or a token conditioner (such as a light) that is correlated with either the positive reinforcement or punishment.

Humanism

emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

Abraham Maslow

proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior

Carl Rogers

used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy (still used today) in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy

client-centered therapy

patient takes a lead role in the therapy session and the therapist displays:

• unconditional positive regard (unconditional acceptance)

• genuineness

• empathy

cognitive revolution

1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry; helped reestablish lines of communication between European psychologists and their American counterparts; noam chomsky was influential here

cognitive sciences

psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields

Cognitive psychology

• accepts the use of the scientific method and generally rejects introspection

• explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire, and motivation)

• contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms, heuristics, or insights

focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions.

Contemporary psychology

a diverse field that is influenced by all of the historical perspectives of psychology

Domains of Psychology

1. Domain 1: Biological (includes neuroscience, consciousness, and sensation)

2. Domain 2: Cognitive (includes the study of perception, cognition, memory, and intelligence)

3. Domain 3: Development (includes learning and conditioning, lifespan development, and language)

4. Domain 4: Social and Personality (includes the study of personality, emotion, motivation, gender, and culture)

5. Domain 5: Mental and Physical Health (includes abnormal psychology, therapy, and health psychology)

Biopsychology

the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior (how biology influences behavior)

evolutionary psychology

the ultimate biological causes of behavior; cognition has functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural selection

Developmental psychology

the scientific study of development across a lifespan

social psychology

the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

personality psychology

focuses on:

• construction of a coherent picture of the individual and their major psychological processes.

• investigation of individual psychological differences.

• investigation of human nature and psychological similarities between individuals.

Five Factor Model

cover all variations in personality: dimensions of conscientiousness (being organized, responsible, and reliable), agreeableness (easy to get along with), neuroticism (stress), openness (trying new things), and extraversion (outgoing)

clinical psychology

focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

Counseling psychology

focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy

health psychology

focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors (biopsychosocial model)

Industrial-Organizational psychology (I-O psychology)

a subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings

sport and exercise psychology

the psychological aspects of sport performance and physical exercise in general

forensic psychology

deals with questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system.

Degree needed to be a college psychology professor

PhD

Degree needed to be an adjunct college psychology professor

Master’s degree

Degree needed to be a clinical psychologists

PhD or PsyD

Degree needed for school psychologists, sport psychologists, or consultants in industrial settings

Master’s Degree

degree needed for those serving as case managers, working in sales, working in human resource departments, and teaching in high schools

bachelor’s degree