Management Theory and Practice Final

leadership

a social (interpersonal) influence relationship between two or more persons who depend on each other to attain certain mutual goals in a group situation

maintenance needs

need for individuals to fit and work together by having, for example, shared norms

task needs

need for the group to make progress toward attaining the goal that brought them together

to be a good manager, one needs to be

an effective leader

leadership skills

the ability to formulate a vision and get others to “buy into” that vision

effective leadership often necessitates

the ability to manage - to set goals; plan, devise, and implement strategy; make decisions and solve problems; and organize and control

managers are generally appointed to their role whereas leadership is more of a

relationship which revolves around the followers’ acceptance or rejection of the leader

leaders often emerge

out of events that unfold among members of a group

managers commonly derive their power from

the larger organization

by virtue of the position that a manager occupies, certain

“rights to act” accompany the position and its place within the hierarchy of authority

leaders can also secure power + the ability to exercise influence w/ carrots and sticks; however, it’s much more common for leaders to derive power from

followers’ perception of their knowledge (expertise), their personality and attractiveness, and the working relationship that has developed between leaders and followers

carrots and sticks

rewards and punishments

the subordinate to a manager frequently complies because of the

authority of the manager, and because the carrots and sticks they have at their disposal

the followers of a leader comply

because they want to

leaders motivate primarily through _ while managers motivate primarily through _

intrinsic processes, extrinsic processes

while managers may be successful in directing and supervising their subordinates, they often succeed or fail because of their

ability or inability to lead

the leader

people who take charge of or guide the activities of others. often seen as the focus or orchestrater of group activity; the people who set the tone of the group so that it can move forward to attain its goals

leaders provide the group with

what is required to fulfill its maintenance and task-related needs

the follower

not a passive player in the leadership process but rather the most critical factor in any leadership event.

followers perceive the situation and

come to define the needs that the leader must fill

the follower either rejects leadership or accepts acts of leadership by surrendering its power to the leader to

diminish task uncertainty, to define and manage the meaning of the situation to the follower, and orchestrate the follower’s action in pursuit of goal attainment

the follower’s _ determine the style of leadership that will be most effective

personality and readiness to follow

w/ internal locus of control - much more responsive to _ than w/ external locus

participative styles of leadership

w/ authoritarian personality - highly receptive to

the effectiveness of directive acts of leadership

high self-esteem individuals tend to have a

strong sense of self-efficacy. they therefore tend to be strongly motivated to perform and persist in the face of adversity. tends to be responsive to participative styles of leadership

low self-esteem individuals (who doubt their competence and worthiness and ability to succeed in different situations) function better with

supportive forms of leadership. helps them deal w/ stress, frustration, anxiety that often emerge w/ difficult tasks

followers without a readiness to follow (limited by their inability to perform and lack of motivation and commitment) usually need

more directive forms of leadership

the context

the situation that surrounds the leader and the followers

situations are

multidimensional

the process

it is a complex, interactive, and dynamic working relationship between leader and followers

process of leadership is

separate and distinct from the leader

part of the process consists of an

exchange relationship between the leader and follower. the leader provides a resource directed toward fulfilling the group’s needs, and the group gives compliance, recognition, and esteem to the leader

to the extent that leadership is the exercise of influence, part of the leadership process is captured by the

surrender of power by the followers and the exercise of influence over the followers by the leader. the leader influences the followers and the followers influence the leader, the context influences both leader and follower, and both leader and follower influence context

at the group level, 2 outcomes are important

have the group’s maintenance needs been fulfilled? have the group’s task needs been met?

there are also important consequences of the leadership process for individuals

attendance, motivation, performance, satisfaction, citizenship, trust, maintenance of their group membership

leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of the leadership process

focuses attention on consequences associated w/ the leadership process. views leadership as consisting of a number of dyadic relationships linking the leader with a follower

leader-follower relationship tends to develop

quickly and remains relatively stable over time

the quality of the relationship between leader and follower is reflected by the

degree of mutual trust, loyalty, support, respect, and obligation

high- and low-quality relationships between a leader and each of his followers produce

in and out groups among the followers

members of the ingroup come to be key players, and high-quality exchange relationships tend to be associated with

higher levels of performance, commitment, and satisfaction than are low-quality exchange relationships

attitudinal similarity and extroversion appear to be associated with

a high-quality leader-member relationship

the nature of the leadership process varies substantially depending on

the leader, the followers, and the situation and context

formal leader

individual who is recognized by those outside the group as the official leader of the group. often, the formal leader is appointed by the organization to serve in a formal capacity as an agent of the organization

increasingly, leaders in organizations will be those who

“best sell” their ideas on how to complete a project

_ are important ingredients in the leadership equation, especially in high-involvement organizations

persuasiveness and inspiration

informal leader

individual whom members of the group acknowledge as their leader; individuals who exert considerable influence on team members even though they hold no official, formal leadership position

most work groups contain

at least 1 informal leader

just like formal leaders, informal leaders can

benefit or harm an organization depending on whether their influence encourages group members to behave consistently with organizational goals

high-involvement organizations frequently

encourage their formal and informal leaders to exercise the full set of management roles

designated leader

people that are put into positions of leadership by forces outside the group

emergent leader

arise from the dynamics and processes that unfold within and among a group of individuals as they endeavor to achieve a collective goal

Salancik and Pfeffer

power to influence others flows to those individuals who possess the critical and scarce resources (often knowledge and expertise) that a group needs to overcome a major problem

a group often turns to the member who possesses the

knowledge, skills, and abilities that the group requires to achieve its goals, which changes based on the context and needs of a situation

people surrender their power to individuals whom they believe

will make meaningful contributions to attaining group goals

the individual to whom power is surrendered is often a member of the group who is

in good standing

idiosyncrasy credits

the “goodwill” an individual earns within a group by conforming to its norms, allowing them some leeway to deviate from those norms later without negative consequences

research indicates that people are unlikely to follow individuals who

don’t display drive, self-confidence, knowledge of the situation, honesty, and integrity

social (interpersonal) influence

one’s ability to effect a change in motivation, attitudes, and/or behaviors of others

power

essentially answers the “how” question → how do leaders influence followers

reward power

the power a person has because people believe that they can bestow rewards or outcomes, such as money or recognition, that others desire

coercive power

power a person has because people believe that the person can punish them by inflicting pain or by withholding or taking away something they value

referent power

power a person has because others want to associate with or be accepted by them

expert power

power a person has because others believe that the person has and is willing to share expert knowledge that they need

resource power

extends the idea of expert power to include the power that a person has because others believe that the person possesses and is willing to share resources, such as information, time, or materials that are needed

legitimate power

power a person has because others believe that the person possesses the “right” to influence them and that they ought to obey

different types of power elicit

different forms of compliance

leaders who use referent and expert power commonly experience

a favorable response in terms of follower satisfaction and performance

research suggests that _ is the most effective influence tactic in terms of its impact on follower commitment, motivation, performance, satisfaction, and group effectiveness

rationality

reward and legitimate power (that is, relying on one’s position to influence others) produce

inconsistent results. sometimes these powers lead to follower performance and satisfaction, yet they also sometimes fail

coercive power can result in favorable performance, yet

follower and resistance dissatisfaction are not uncommon.

the use of coercive power tends to

dilute the effectiveness of the other powers whereas the use of referent power tends to magnify the effectiveness of other forms of power

leadership is also about

having a vision and communicating that vision to others in such a way that it provides meaning for the follower

Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum

a continuum along which leadership styles range from authoritarian to extremely high levels of worker freedom

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

posits two different sets of attitudes about the individual as an organizational member

Theory X leader

assumes that the average individual dislikes work and is incapable of exercising adequate self-direction and self-control. as a consequence, they exert a highly controlling leadership style

Theory Y leader

believe that people have creative capacities as well as both the ability and desire to exercise self-direction and self-control. they typically allow organizational members significant amounts of discretion in their jobs and encourage them to participate in departmental and organizational decision-making. these leaders are much more likely to adopt involvement-oriented approaches to leadership and organically designed organizations for their leadership group

directive autocrat

retains power, makes unilateral decisions, and closely supervises workers’ activities. this style of leadership is seen as appropriate when circumstances require quick decisions and organizational members are new, inexperienced, or underqualified

permissive autocrat

mixes their use of power by retaining decision-making power but permitting organizational members to exercise discretion when executing those decisions. this leader behavior is recommended when decision-making time is limited, when tasks are routine, or when organizational members have sufficient expertise to determine appropriate role behaviors

directive democrat

encourages participative decision-making but retains the power to direct team members in the execution of their roles. this style is appropriate when followers have valuable opinions and ideas but one person needs to coordinate the execution of the ideas

permissive democrat

shares power with group members, soliciting involvement in both decision-making and execution. this style is appropriate when participation has both informational and motivational value, when time permits group decision-making, when group members are capable of improving decision quality, and when followers are capable of exercising self-management in their performance of work

great man theory of leadership

some people are born with the necessary attributes to be great leaders,

_ are all necessary for the person who has the “right stuff” to realize their leadership potential

knowledge, skills, ability, vision, strategy, and effective vision implementation

psychologist Walter Mischel adds the important observation that personality tends to

get expressed through an individual’s behavior in “weak” situations and to be suppressed in “strong” situations

a strong situation is one with

strong behavioral norms and rules, strong incentives, clear expectations, and rewards for a particular behavior. our characterization of the mechanistic organization with its well-defined hierarchy of authority, jobs, and standard operating procedures exemplifies a strong situation

the organic social system exemplifies a weak situation. from a leadership perspective, a person’s traits

play a stronger role in their leader behavior and ultimately leader effectiveness when the situation permits the expression of their disposition. thus, personality traits prominently shape leader behavior in weak situations.

men emerge as leaders

more frequently than women. throughout history, few women have been in positions where they could develop or exercise leadership behaviors

in contemporary society, being perceived as experts appears to

play an important role in the emergence of women as leaders. yet, gender role is more predictive than sex

individuals with “masculine” (for example, assertive, aggressive, competitive, willing to take a stand) as opposed to “feminine” (cheerful, affectionate, sympathetic, gentle) characteristics

are more likely to emerge in leadership roles

recent evidence, however, suggests that individuals who are androgynous (that is, who simultaneously possess both masculine and feminine characteristics) are

as likely to emerge in leadership roles as individuals with only masculine characteristics

men tend to be more autocratic or directive, while women are

more likely to adopt a more democratic/participative leadership style

individuals characterized by a positive affective state exhibit a mood that is

active, strong, excited, enthusiastic, peppy, and elated

a leader with this a positive affective state exudes

an air of confidence and optimism and is seen as enjoying work-related activities

recent research demonstrates that leaders with positive affectivity tend to be more

competent interpersonally, to contribute more to group activities, and to be able to function more effectively in their leadership role

leaders with a positive affect

promote group cohesiveness and productivity. this mood state is also associated with low levels of group turnover and is positively associated with followers who engage in acts of good group citizenship

self-monitoring as a personality trait refers to

the strength of an individual’s ability and willingness to read verbal and nonverbal cues and to alter one’s behavior so as to manage the presentation of the self and the images that others form of the individual

high self-monitors

emerge more often as leaders. in addition, they appear to exert more influence on group decisions and initiate more structure than low self-monitors

CEOs and management consultants agree that effective leaders display

trust in their employees, develop a vision, keep their cool, encourage risk, bring expertise into the work setting, invite dissent, and focus everyone’s attention on that which is important

Ohio State University - their results identified 2 major sets of leader behaviors

consideration and initiating structure

consideration

the “relationship-oriented” behavior of a leader. it’s instrumental in creating and maintaining good relationships (that is, addressing the group’s maintenance needs) with organizational members

consideration behaviors include

being supportive and friendly, representing people’s interests, communicating openly with group members, recognizing them, respecting their ideas, and sharing concern for their feelings